transitivity (grammar)

Transitivity is a linguistics property that relates to whether a verb, participle, or gerund denotes a transitive object. It is closely related to valency, which considers other arguments in addition to transitive objects.

English grammar makes a binary distinction between intransitive verbs (e.g. ''arrive'', ''belong'', or ''die'', which do not denote a transitive object) and transitive verbs (e.g., ''announce'', ''bring'', or ''complete'', which must denote a transitive object). Many languages, including English, have ditransitive verbs that denote two objects, and some verbs may be ambitransitive in a manner that is either transitive (e.g., "I ''read'' the book" or "We ''won'' the game") or intransitive (e.g., "I ''read'' until bedtime" or "We ''won''") depending on the given context.

History

The notion of transitivity, as well as other notions that today are the basics of linguistics, was first introduced by the Stoics and the Peripatetic school, but they probably referred to the whole sentence containing transitive or intransitive verbs, not just to the verb. The discovery of the Stoics was later used and developed by the philologists of the Alexandrian school and later grammarians.

Formal analysis

Many languages, such as Hungarian, mark transitivity through morphology; transitive verbs and intransitive verbs behave in distinctive ways. In languages with polypersonal agreement, an intransitive verb will agree with its subject only, while a transitive verb will agree with both subject and direct object.

In other languages the distinction is based on syntax. It is possible to identify an intransitive verb in English, for example, by attempting to supply it with an appropriate direct object:

*She ''changed'' her clothing — ''transitive verb''
*His ''changed'' attitude — ''transitive participle
*The wind began ''changing'' directions — ''transitive gerund''

By contrast, an intransitive verb coupled with a direct object will result in an ungrammatical utterance:
*''What did you arrive?''
*''I belong the team.''

Conversely (at least in a traditional analysis), using a transitive verb in English without a direct object will result in an incomplete sentence:
*I ''announced'' (...)
*You ''brought'' (...)
*Did she complete the task? Yes, she ''completed'' (...)

English is unusually lax by comparison with other Indo-European languages in its rules on transitivity; what may appear to be a transitive verb can be used as an intransitive verb, and vice versa. ''Eat'' and ''read'' and many other verbs can be used either transitively or intransitively. Often there is a semantic difference between the intransitive and transitive forms of a verb: ''the water is boiling'' versus ''I boiled the water''; ''the grapes grew'' versus ''I grew the grapes''. In these examples, known as ergative verbs, the role of the subject differs between intransitive and transitive verbs.

Even though an intransitive verb may not take a ''direct'' object, it often may take an appropriate indirect object:

*''I laughed ''

What are considered to be intransitive verbs can also take cognate objects, where the object is considered integral to the action, for example ''She slept a troubled sleep''.

Languages that express transitivity through morphology

The following languages of the below language families (or hypothetical language families) are examples of languages that have this feature:

In the Sino-Tibetan languages language family:
* Lhasa Tibetan

In the Uralo-Altaic hypothetical language family:
* Mordvinic languages
* The three Ugric languages
* Northern Samoyedic languages
* Turkic languages
* Mongolic languages
* Korean
* Japanese

In Indo-European (Indo-Aryan) language familyː
* Hindi-Urdu ( Hindustani)
* Punjabi
* Gujarati

In the Paleosiberian hypothetical language family:
* Languages of both branches of the Eskimo–Aleut family; for details from the Eskimo branch, see e.g. Sireniki, Kalaallisut
* Chukotko-Kamchatkan languages
* Yukaghir
* The Ket language has a very sophisticated verbal inclination system, referring to the object in many ways (see also polypersonal agreement).

All varieties of Melanesian Pidgin use ''-im'' or ''-em'' as a transitivity marker:
* Tok Pisin, for example has meaning 'want', while means 'like (him/her/it)'
* Bislama
* Solomon Islands Pidgin
* Torres Strait Creole

All Salishan languages.

Form–function mappings

Formal transitivity is associated with a variety of semantic functions across languages. Crosslinguistically, Hopper and Thompson (1980) have proposed to decompose the notion of transitivity into ten formal and semantic features (some binary, some scalar); the features argued to be associated with the degree of transitivity are summarized in the following well-known table:

Næss (2007) has argued at length for the following two points:
# Though formally a broad category of phenomena, transitivity boils down to a way to ''maximally distinguish'' the two participants involved (pp. 22–25);
# Major participants are describable in terms of the semantic features �Volitional �Instigating �Affectedwhich makes them distinctive from each other. Different combinations of these binary values will yield different types of participants (pg. 89), which are then compatible or incompatible with different verbs. Individual languages may, of course, make more fine-grained distinctions (chapter 5).

Types of participants discussed include:

*Volitional Undergoers (some Experiencer, Recipients, Beneficiaries): Vol Inst Aff:ex. ''me'' in Spanish ''Me gusta.'' I like it.'*Force: Vol Inst Aff
:ex. ''the tornado'' in ''The tornado broke my windows.''
*Instrument: Vol Inst Aff:ex. ''the hammer'' in ''The hammer broke the cup.''

See also

* Differential object marking
* Ergative–absolutive language
* Impersonal verb
* Unaccusative verb

Notes

References

* Dryer, Matthew S. 2007
Clause types
In Timothy Shopen (ed.), Language typology and syntactic description, Vol. 1, 224–275. Second Edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
*
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* Translation of the title: ''At the cradle of languages''.

External links

*http://www.smg.surrey.ac.uk/features/morphosemantic/transitivity/ do
10.15126/SMG.18/1.09



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