''Tractatus Politicus'' (''TP'') or ''Political Treatise'' (''PT'') was the last and incomplete treatise written by

Baruch Spinoza Baruch (de) Spinoza (24 November 163221 February 1677), also known under his Latinized pen name Benedictus de Spinoza, was a philosopher of Portuguese-Jewish origin, who was born in the Dutch Republic. A forerunner of the Age of Enlightenmen ...

. It was written in 1675–77 and published posthumously in 1677. This treatise has the subtitle, "''In quo demonstratur, quomodo Societas, ubi Imperium Monarchicum locum habet, sicut et ea, ubi Optimi imperant, debet institui, ne in Tyrannidem labatur, et ut Pax, Libertasque civium inviolata maneat''." ("In which it is demonstrated how a society, may it be a

monarchy A monarchy is a form of government in which a person, the monarch, reigns as head of state for the rest of their life, or until abdication. The extent of the authority of the monarch may vary from restricted and largely symbolic (constitutio ...

or an

aristocracy Aristocracy (; ) is a form of government that places power in the hands of a small, privileged ruling class, the aristocracy (class), aristocrats. Across Europe, the aristocracy exercised immense Economy, economic, Politics, political, and soc ...

, can be best governed, so as not to fall into

tyranny A tyrant (), in the modern English language, English usage of the word, is an autocracy, absolute ruler who is unrestrained by law, or one who has usurper, usurped a legitimate ruler's sovereignty. Often portrayed as cruel, tyrants may defen ...

, and so that the peace and liberty of the citizens remain unviolated").

Summary

The Political Treatise has eleven Chapters: I. Introduction, II. Of

Natural law Natural law (, ) is a Philosophy, philosophical and legal theory that posits the existence of a set of inherent laws derived from nature and universal moral principles, which are discoverable through reason. In ethics, natural law theory asserts ...

(referring to his '' Theologico-Political Treatise''), III. Of the Right of Supreme Authorities, IV. Of the Function of Supreme Authorities, V. Of best State of

Dominion A dominion was any of several largely self-governance, self-governing countries of the British Empire, once known collectively as the ''British Commonwealth of Nations''. Progressing from colonies, their degrees of self-governing colony, colon ...

, VI. to VII. Of

Monarchy A monarchy is a form of government in which a person, the monarch, reigns as head of state for the rest of their life, or until abdication. The extent of the authority of the monarch may vary from restricted and largely symbolic (constitutio ...

, VIII. to X. Of

Aristocracy Aristocracy (; ) is a form of government that places power in the hands of a small, privileged ruling class, the aristocracy (class), aristocrats. Across Europe, the aristocracy exercised immense Economy, economic, Politics, political, and soc ...

, XI. Of

Democracy Democracy (from , ''dēmos'' 'people' and ''kratos'' 'rule') is a form of government in which political power is vested in the people or the population of a state. Under a minimalist definition of democracy, rulers are elected through competitiv ...

. As in

Aristotle Aristotle (; 384–322 BC) was an Ancient Greek philosophy, Ancient Greek philosopher and polymath. His writings cover a broad range of subjects spanning the natural sciences, philosophy, linguistics, economics, politics, psychology, a ...

's ''

Politics Politics () is the set of activities that are associated with decision-making, making decisions in social group, groups, or other forms of power (social and political), power relations among individuals, such as the distribution of Social sta ...

'', Spinoza analyzes each

form of government A government is the system or group of people governing an organized community, generally a state. In the case of its broad associative definition, government normally consists of legislature, executive, and judiciary. Government is a m ...

, and

democracy Democracy (from , ''dēmos'' 'people' and ''kratos'' 'rule') is a form of government in which political power is vested in the people or the population of a state. Under a minimalist definition of democracy, rulers are elected through competitiv ...

without affirming which of these is the best. Unlike Aristotle, Spinoza argued in the last chapter that democracy is not " rule of majority", but freedom for all by the

natural law Natural law (, ) is a Philosophy, philosophical and legal theory that posits the existence of a set of inherent laws derived from nature and universal moral principles, which are discoverable through reason. In ethics, natural law theory asserts ...

. This unfinished work includes Spinoza's only discussion of women, whom he considered unsuitable to hold political power, at odds with his usual radical stances on other hierarchies. The treatise also characterizes the notion of

peace Peace is a state of harmony in the absence of hostility and violence, and everything that discusses achieving human welfare through justice and peaceful conditions. In a societal sense, peace is commonly used to mean a lack of conflict (suc ...

in Chapter V, section 4, affirming that "Peace is not mere absence of war, but is a virtue that springs from force of character." In the same Chapter, section 7

Niccolò Machiavelli Niccolò di Bernardo dei Machiavelli (3 May 1469 – 21 June 1527) was a Florentine diplomat, author, philosopher, and historian who lived during the Italian Renaissance. He is best known for his political treatise '' The Prince'' (), writte ...

is referred to as stating that the prince should establish and maintain dominion, though why Machiavelli did this is not clear, with the suggestion that Machiavelli is showing how imprudent it is to try to remove a tyrant if one is unable to remove the causes of his being a tyrant. Indeed, it has been suggested that the Political Treatise is an extended response to the authoritarian rule of William of Orange following the invasion of the Netherlands by France in 1672 and which continued as Spinoza was writing the text.Bartholomew Begley, "Spinoza, Before and After the Rampjaar". The European Legacy Toward New Paradigms Volume 27, 2022 - Issue 6: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10848770.2022.2083912

English translations

* 1883 by R. H. M. Elwes in the first volume of ''The Chief Works of Benedict de Spinoza'' (George Bell & Sons, London). * 1958 by A. G. Wernham in ''The Political Works'' of Spinoza, with introduction and notes; also includes an abriged version of the ''

Tractatus Theologico-Politicus The ''Tractatus Theologico-Politicus'' (''TTP'') or ''Theologico-Political Treatise'', is a 1670 work of philosophy written in Latin by the Dutch philosopher Benedictus Spinoza (1632–1677). The book was one of the most important and contr ...

'' (Clarendon Press, Oxford). * 2000 by Samuel Shirley, with introduction and notes by Steven Barbone and Lee Race, and a Prefatory essay by Douglas Den Uyl (Hacket Publications). Latter added to his translation of the ''Complete Works'' in one volume, with introduction and notes by Michael L. Morgan (also Hacket Publications, 2002).

References

External links

* Political philosophy Works by Baruch Spinoza Treatises {{poli-philo-book-stub

Summary

English translations

See also

References

External links