The pigeon pea (''Cajanus cajan'') or toor dal is a perennial

legume Legumes are plants in the pea family Fabaceae (or Leguminosae), or the fruit or seeds of such plants. When used as a dry grain for human consumption, the seeds are also called pulses. Legumes are grown agriculturally, primarily for human consum ...

from the

family Family (from ) is a Social group, group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or Affinity (law), affinity (by marriage or other relationship). It forms the basis for social order. Ideally, families offer predictabili ...

Fabaceae Fabaceae () or Leguminosae,International Code of Nomen ...

native to the

Eastern Hemisphere The Eastern Hemisphere is the half of the planet Earth which is east of the prime meridian (which crosses Greenwich, London, United Kingdom) and west of the antimeridian (which crosses the Pacific Ocean and relatively little land from pole to p ...

. The pigeon pea is widely cultivated in tropical and semitropical regions around the world, being commonly consumed in

South Asia South Asia is the southern Subregion#Asia, subregion of Asia that is defined in both geographical and Ethnicity, ethnic-Culture, cultural terms. South Asia, with a population of 2.04 billion, contains a quarter (25%) of the world's populatio ...

Southeast Asia Southeast Asia is the geographical United Nations geoscheme for Asia#South-eastern Asia, southeastern region of Asia, consisting of the regions that are situated south of China, east of the Indian subcontinent, and northwest of the Mainland Au ...

Africa Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent after Asia. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 20% of Earth's land area and 6% of its total surfac ...

Latin America Latin America is the cultural region of the Americas where Romance languages are predominantly spoken, primarily Spanish language, Spanish and Portuguese language, Portuguese. Latin America is defined according to cultural identity, not geogr ...

and the

Caribbean The Caribbean ( , ; ; ; ) is a region in the middle of the Americas centered around the Caribbean Sea in the Atlantic Ocean, North Atlantic Ocean, mostly overlapping with the West Indies. Bordered by North America to the north, Central America ...

Etymology and other names

Scientific epithet

The scientific name for the

genus Genus (; : genera ) is a taxonomic rank above species and below family (taxonomy), family as used in the biological classification of extant taxon, living and fossil organisms as well as Virus classification#ICTV classification, viruses. In bino ...

''Cajanus'' and the

species A species () is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate sexes or mating types can produce fertile offspring, typically by sexual reproduction. It is the basic unit of Taxonomy (biology), ...

''cajan'' derive from the Malay word ''katjang'' (modern spelling: kacang) meaning

in reference to the bean of the plant.

Common English names

In English they are commonly referred to as pigeon pea which originates from the historical utilization of the pulse as

pigeon Columbidae is a bird family consisting of doves and pigeons. It is the only family in the order Columbiformes. These are stout-bodied birds with small heads, relatively short necks and slender bills that in some species feature fleshy ceres. ...

fodder Fodder (), also called provender (), is any agriculture, agricultural foodstuff used specifically to feed domesticated livestock, such as cattle, domestic rabbit, rabbits, sheep, horses, chickens and pigs. "Fodder" refers particularly to food ...

Barbados Barbados, officially the Republic of Barbados, is an island country in the Atlantic Ocean. It is part of the Lesser Antilles of the West Indies and the easternmost island of the Caribbean region. It lies on the boundary of the South American ...

. The term Congo pea and Angola pea developed due to the presence of its cultivation in Africa and the association of its utilization with those of African descent. The names no-eye pea and red gram both refer to the characteristics of the seed, with no-eye pea in reference to the lack of a hilum blotch on most varieties, unlike the

black-eyed pea The black-eyed pea or black-eyed bean is a legume grown around the world for its medium-sized, edible bean. It is a subspecies of the cowpea, an Old World plant domesticated in Africa, and is sometimes simply called a cowpea. The common commerci ...

, and red gram in reference to the red color of most Indian varieties and gram simply referring to the plant being a

Internationally

Africa

Benin Benin, officially the Republic of Benin, is a country in West Africa. It was formerly known as Dahomey. It is bordered by Togo to the west, Nigeria to the east, Burkina Faso to the north-west, and Niger to the north-east. The majority of its po ...

the pigeon pea is locally known as klouékoun in Fon, otinin in Ede and eklui in Adja. In

Cape Verde Cape Verde or Cabo Verde, officially the Republic of Cabo Verde, is an island country and archipelagic state of West Africa in the central Atlantic Ocean, consisting of ten volcanic islands with a combined land area of about . These islands ...

they are called Fixon Kongu in

Cape Verdean creole Cape Verdean Creole is a Portuguese-based creole languages, Portuguese-based creole language spoken on the islands of Cape Verde. It is the native creole language of virtually all Cape Verdeans and is used as a second language by the Cape Verd ...

. In

Comoros The Comoros, officially the Union of the Comoros, is an archipelagic country made up of three islands in Southeastern Africa, located at the northern end of the Mozambique Channel in the Indian Ocean. Its capital and largest city is Moroni, ...

and

Mauritius Mauritius, officially the Republic of Mauritius, is an island country in the Indian Ocean, about off the southeastern coast of East Africa, east of Madagascar. It includes the main island (also called Mauritius), as well as Rodrigues, Ag ...

they are known as embrevade or ambrebdade in Comorian and Morisyen, respectively, in return originating from the Malagasy term for the plant amberivatry. In

Ghana Ghana, officially the Republic of Ghana, is a country in West Africa. It is situated along the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean to the south, and shares borders with Côte d’Ivoire to the west, Burkina Faso to the north, and Togo to t ...

they are known as aduwa or adowa in

Dagbani Dagbani (or Dagbane), also known as Dagbanli or Dagbanle, is a Gur language spoken in Ghana and Northern Togo. Its native speakers are estimated around 1,170,000. Dagbani is the most widely spoken language in northern Ghana, specifically among ...

. In

Kenya Kenya, officially the Republic of Kenya, is a country located in East Africa. With an estimated population of more than 52.4 million as of mid-2024, Kenya is the 27th-most-populous country in the world and the 7th most populous in Africa. ...

and

Tanzania Tanzania, officially the United Republic of Tanzania, is a country in East Africa within the African Great Lakes region. It is bordered by Uganda to the northwest; Kenya to the northeast; the Indian Ocean to the east; Mozambique and Malawi to t ...

they are known as mbaazi in

Swahili Swahili may refer to: * Swahili language, a Bantu language officially used in Tanzania, Kenya and Uganda and widely spoken in the African Great Lakes. * Swahili people, an ethnic group in East Africa. * Swahili culture, the culture of the Swahili p ...

. In

Malawi Malawi, officially the Republic of Malawi, is a landlocked country in Southeastern Africa. It is bordered by Zambia to the west, Tanzania to the north and northeast, and Mozambique to the east, south, and southwest. Malawi spans over and ...

they are called nandolo in

Chichewa Chewa ( ; also known as Nyanja ) is a Bantu language spoken in Malawi and a recognised minority in Zambia and Mozambique. The noun class prefix ''chi-'' is used for languages, so the language is often called or Chinyanja. In Malawi, the name wa ...

. In

Nigeria Nigeria, officially the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a country in West Africa. It is situated between the Sahel to the north and the Gulf of Guinea in the Atlantic Ocean to the south. It covers an area of . With Demographics of Nigeria, ...

pigeon peas are called fiofio or mgbụmgbụ in

Igbo Igbo may refer to: * Igbo people, an ethnic group of Nigeria * Igbo language, their language * anything related to Igboland, a cultural region in Nigeria See also * Ibo (disambiguation) * Igbo mythology * Igbo music * Igbo art * * Igbo-Ukwu, a t ...

, waken-masar "''Egyptian bean''" or waken-turawa "''foreigner bean''" in

Hausa Hausa may refer to: * Hausa people, an ethnic group of West Africa * Hausa language, spoken in West Africa * Hausa Kingdoms, a historical collection of Hausa city-states * Hausa (horse) or Dongola horse, an African breed of riding horse See also ...

, and òtílí in Yoruba. In

Sudan Sudan, officially the Republic of the Sudan, is a country in Northeast Africa. It borders the Central African Republic to the southwest, Chad to the west, Libya to the northwest, Egypt to the north, the Red Sea to the east, Eritrea and Ethiopi ...

they are known as adaseya, adasy and adasia.

Asia

India India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area; the List of countries by population (United Nations), most populous country since ...

the plant is known by various different names such as * Assamese: ৰহৰ মাহ (rohor mah), মিৰি মাহ (miri-mah) *

Bengali Bengali or Bengalee, or Bengalese may refer to: *something of, from, or related to Bengal, a large region in South Asia * Bengalis, an ethnic and linguistic group of the region * Bengali language, the language they speak ** Bengali alphabet, the w ...

: অড়হর (arahar) * Gujarati: તુવેર (tuver) *

Hindi Modern Standard Hindi (, ), commonly referred to as Hindi, is the Standard language, standardised variety of the Hindustani language written in the Devanagari script. It is an official language of India, official language of the Government ...

: अरहर (arhar), तुवर (tuvar) *

Kannada Kannada () is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly in the state of Karnataka in southwestern India, and spoken by a minority of the population in all neighbouring states. It has 44 million native speakers, and is additionally a ...

: ತೊಗರಿ ಬೆಳೆ (togari bele), ತೊಗರಿ ಕಾಳು (togari kalu) *

Konkani __NOTOC__ Konkani may refer to: Language * Konkani language is an Indo-Aryan language spoken in the Konkan region of India. * Konkani alphabets, different scripts used to write the language **Konkani in the Roman script, one of the scripts used to ...

: तोरी (tori) *

Malayalam Malayalam (; , ) is a Dravidian languages, Dravidian language spoken in the Indian state of Kerala and the union territories of Lakshadweep and Puducherry (union territory), Puducherry (Mahé district) by the Malayali people. It is one of ...

: ആഢകി (adhaki), തുവര (tuvara) * Manipuri: মাইৰোংবী (mairongbi) *

Marathi Marathi may refer to: *Marathi people, an Indo-Aryan ethnolinguistic group of Maharashtra, India **Marathi people (Uttar Pradesh), the Marathi people in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh *Marathi language, the Indo-Aryan language spoken by the Mar ...

: तूर (tur) * Nepali: रहर (rahar) * Oriya: ହରଡ଼ (harada), କାକ୍ଷୀ (kakhyi), ତୁବର (tubara) *

Punjabi Punjabi, or Panjabi, most often refers to: * Something of, from, or related to Punjab, a region in India and Pakistan * Punjabi language * Punjabis, Punjabi people * Punjabi dialects and languages Punjabi may also refer to: * Punjabi (horse), a ...

: ਦਿੰਗੇਰ (dinger) *

Tamil Tamil may refer to: People, culture and language * Tamils, an ethno-linguistic group native to India, Sri Lanka, and some other parts of Asia **Sri Lankan Tamils, Tamil people native to Sri Lanka ** Myanmar or Burmese Tamils, Tamil people of Ind ...

: ஆடகி (adhaki), இருப்புலி (iruppuli), காய்ச்சி (kaycci) and துவரை (tuvarai) *

Telugu Telugu may refer to: * Telugu language, a major Dravidian language of South India ** Telugu literature, is the body of works written in the Telugu language. * Telugu people, an ethno-linguistic group of India * Telugu script, used to write the Tel ...

: కంది (kandi), * Tibetan: tu ba ri *

Urdu Urdu (; , , ) is an Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan language spoken chiefly in South Asia. It is the Languages of Pakistan, national language and ''lingua franca'' of Pakistan. In India, it is an Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of Indi ...

: ارهر (arhar), توأر (tuar). In

Persian Persian may refer to: * People and things from Iran, historically called ''Persia'' in the English language ** Persians, the majority ethnic group in Iran, not to be conflated with the Iranic peoples ** Persian language, an Iranian language of the ...

,it is known as شاخول (shakhul) and is popular in dishes. In the

Philippines The Philippines, officially the Republic of the Philippines, is an Archipelagic state, archipelagic country in Southeast Asia. Located in the western Pacific Ocean, it consists of List of islands of the Philippines, 7,641 islands, with a tot ...

they are known as Kadios in Filipino and Kadyos in

Tagalog Tagalog may refer to: Language * Tagalog language, a language spoken in the Philippines ** Old Tagalog, an archaic form of the language ** Batangas Tagalog, a dialect of the language * Tagalog script, the writing system historically used for Tagal ...

The Americas

, they are known as guandul or gandul in

Spanish Spanish might refer to: * Items from or related to Spain: **Spaniards are a nation and ethnic group indigenous to Spain **Spanish language, spoken in Spain and many countries in the Americas **Spanish cuisine **Spanish history **Spanish culture ...

, and feijão andu or gandu in Portuguese all of which derive from

Kikongo Kongo or Kikongo is one of the Bantu languages spoken by the Kongo people living in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), the Republic of the Congo, Gabon, and Angola. It is a tonal language. The vast majority of present-day speakers li ...

''wandu'' or from

Kimbundu Kimbundu, a Bantu language which has sometimes been called Mbundu or North Mbundu (to distinguish it from Umbundu, sometimes called South Mbundu), is the second-most-widely-spoken Bantu language in Angola. Its speakers are concentrated in the n ...

''oanda''; both names referring to the same plant. In the

Anglophone The English-speaking world comprises the 88 countries and territories in which English is an official, administrative, or cultural language. In the early 2000s, between one and two billion people spoke English, making it the largest language ...

regions of the

, like

Jamaica Jamaica is an island country in the Caribbean Sea and the West Indies. At , it is the third-largest island—after Cuba and Hispaniola—of the Greater Antilles and the Caribbean. Jamaica lies about south of Cuba, west of Hispaniola (the is ...

, they are known as Gungo peas, coming from the more archaic English name for the plant ''congo pea,'' given to the plant because of its popularity and relation to

Sub-Saharan Africa Sub-Saharan Africa is the area and regions of the continent of Africa that lie south of the Sahara. These include Central Africa, East Africa, Southern Africa, and West Africa. Geopolitically, in addition to the list of sovereign states and ...

.Carney, J. A. and Rosomoff, R. N. (2009) ''In the Shadow of Slavery. Africa’s Botanical legacy in the Atlantic World''. Berkeley: University of California Press In

Francophone The Francophonie or Francophone world is the whole body of people and organisations around the world who use the French language regularly for private or public purposes. The term was coined by Onésime Reclus in 1880 and became important a ...

regions of the Caribbean they are known as pois d' angole, pwa di bwa in

Antillean creole Antillean French Creole (also known as Lesser Antillean Creole, Kreyol, or Patois) is a French-based creole languages, French-based creole language that is primarily spoken in the Lesser Antilles caribbean. Its grammar and vocabulary include ele ...

and pwa kongo in

Haitian creole Haitian Creole (; , ; , ), or simply Creole (), is a French-based creole languages, French-based creole language spoken by 10 to 12million people worldwide, and is one of the two official languages of Haiti (the other being French), where it ...

. In

Suriname Suriname, officially the Republic of Suriname, is a country in northern South America, also considered as part of the Caribbean and the West Indies. It is a developing country with a Human Development Index, high level of human development; i ...

they are known as wandoe or gele pesi, the former of which is derived from the same source as its Spanish and Portuguese counterparts, the latter of which literally translates to 'yellow pea' from Dutch and

Sranan Tongo Sranan Tongo (Sranantongo, "Surinamese tongue", Sranan, Surinamese Creole) is an English-based creole language from Suriname, in South America, where it is the first or second language for 519,600 Surinamese people (approximately 80% of the popu ...

Oceania

Hawaii Hawaii ( ; ) is an island U.S. state, state of the United States, in the Pacific Ocean about southwest of the U.S. mainland. One of the two Non-contiguous United States, non-contiguous U.S. states (along with Alaska), it is the only sta ...

they are known as pi pokoliko 'Puerto Rican pea' or pi nunu 'pigeon pea' in the

Hawaiian language Hawaiian (', ) is a critically endangered Polynesian language of the Austronesian language family, originating in and native to the Hawaiian Islands. It is the native language of the Hawaiian people. Hawaiian, along with English, is an offi ...

History and origin

Origin

The closest relatives to the cultivated pigeon pea are Cajanus cajanifolia, Cajanus scarabaeoides and

Cajanus kerstingii ''Cajanus kerstingii'' is a widely ignored shrub found mostly in open savannah conditions across western Africa. It is closely related to the widely utilised ''Cajanus cajan'', otherwise known as pigeon pea. ''Cajanus kerstingii'' can be consume ...

, native to India and the latter West Africa respectively. Much debate exist over the geographical origin of the species, with some groups claiming origin from the

Nile river The Nile (also known as the Nile River or River Nile) is a major north-flowing river in northeastern Africa. It flows into the Mediterranean Sea. The Nile is the longest river in Africa. It has historically been considered the longest river i ...

and

Western Africa West Africa, also known as Western Africa, is the westernmost region of Africa. The United Nations defines Western Africa as the 16 countries of Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Ma ...

, and the other Indian origin. The two epicenters of genetic diversity exist in both Africa and India, but India is considered to be its primary center of origin with West Africa being considered a second major center of origin.

History

By at least 2,800 BCE in peninsular India, where its presumptive closest wild relatives ''Cajanus cajanifolia'' occurs in tropical deciduous woodlands, its cultivation has been documented. Archaeological finds of pigeon pea cultivation dating to about

14th century BC The 14th century BC was the century that lasted from the year 1400 BC until 1301 BC. Events * 1350 – 1250 BC: the Bajío phase of the San Lorenzo site in Mexico; large public buildings are constructed. * Pastoral nomadism develops in the stepp ...

have also been found at the

Neolithic The Neolithic or New Stone Age (from Ancient Greek, Greek 'new' and 'stone') is an archaeological period, the final division of the Stone Age in Mesopotamia, Asia, Europe and Africa (c. 10,000 BCE to c. 2,000 BCE). It saw the Neolithic Revo ...

site of Sanganakallu in

Bellary Ballari (formerly Bellary) is a city in the Ballari district in state of Karnataka, India. Ballari houses many steel plants such as JSW Vijayanagar, one of the largest in Asia. Ballari district is also known as the ‘Steel city of South Ind ...

and its border area

Tuljapur Tuljapur is a town with a municipal council in Dharashiv District in the Indian state of Maharashtra. It is the administrative seat of Tuljapur taluka. Tuljapur is the location of the annual Tulja Bhavani fair during Navaratri, i.e., in the mon ...

(where the cultivation of African domesticated plants like

pearl millet Pearl millet (''Cenchrus americanus'', commonly known as the synonym ''Pennisetum glaucum'') is the most widely grown type of millet. It has been grown in Africa and the Indian subcontinent since prehistoric times. The center of diversity, and ...

finger millet Finger millet (''Eleusine coracana'') is an Annual plant, annual herbaceous plant widely grown as a cereal crop in the arid and Semi-arid climate, semiarid areas in Africa and Asia. It is a tetraploid and Self-pollination, self-pollinating speci ...

, and

Lablab ''Lablab purpureus'' is a species of bean in the family Fabaceae. It is native to sub-Saharan Africa and it is cultivated throughout the tropics for food.Gopalpur and other South Indian states. From India it may have made its way to North-East Africa via Trans-Oceanic Bronze Age trade that allowed cross-cultural exchange of resources and agricultural products. The earliest evidence of pigeon peas in Africa was found in

Ancient Egypt Ancient Egypt () was a cradle of civilization concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in Northeast Africa. It emerged from prehistoric Egypt around 3150BC (according to conventional Egyptian chronology), when Upper and Lower E ...

with the presence of seeds in Egyptian tombs dating back to around 2,200 BCE. From eastern Africa, cultivation spread further west and south through the continent, where by means of the

Trans-Atlantic slave trade The Atlantic slave trade or transatlantic slave trade involved the transportation by slave traders of enslaved African people to the Americas. European slave ships regularly used the triangular trade route and its Middle Passage. Europeans est ...

, it reached the

Americas The Americas, sometimes collectively called America, are a landmass comprising the totality of North America and South America.''Webster's New World College Dictionary'', 2010 by Wiley Publishing, Inc., Cleveland, Ohio. When viewed as a sing ...

around the 17th century. Pigeon peas were introduced to Hawaii in 1824 by

James Macrae James Macrae (1677 – July 1744) was a Scottish seaman and administrator who served as the President of Fort St George from 1725 to 1730. He is known for naval exploits against the pirate Edward England and for reforming the administration of ...

with a few specimens becoming naturalized on the islands, but they wouldn't gain much popularity until later. By the early 20th century

Filipinos Filipinos () are citizens or people identified with the country of the Philippines. Filipinos come from various Austronesian peoples, all typically speaking Filipino language, Filipino, Philippine English, English, or other Philippine language ...

and

Puerto Ricans Puerto Ricans (), most commonly known as Puerto Rico#Etymology, Boricuas, but also occasionally referred to as '':es:Anexo:Gentilicios de Puerto Rico#Lista general, Borinqueños'', '':es:Anexo:Gentilicios de Puerto Rico#Lista general, Borincan ...

began to emigrate from the

American Philippines American(s) may refer to: * American, something of, from, or related to the United States of America, commonly known as the "United States" or "America" ** Americans, citizens and nationals of the United States of America ** American ancestry, p ...

and Puerto Rico to

to work in Sugar plantations in Hawaii, sugarcane plantations in 1906 and 1901, respectively. Pigeon peas are said to have been popularized on the island by the Puerto Rican community where by the World War I, First World War their cultivation began, to expand on the island where they are still cultivated and consumed by locals.

Nutrition

Pigeon peas contain high levels of protein and the important amino acids methionine, lysine, and tryptophan. The following table indicates completeness of nutritional profile of various amino acids within mature seeds of pigeon pea. Methionine + Cystine combination is the only limiting amino acid combination in pigeon pea. In contrast to the mature seeds, the immature seeds are generally lower in all nutritional values, however they contain a significant amount of vitamin C (39 mg per 100 g serving) and have a slightly higher fat content. Research has shown that the protein content of the immature seeds is of a higher quality.

Cultivation

Pigeon peas can be of a perennial variety, in which the crop can last three to five years (although the seed yield drops considerably after the first two years), or an annual variety more suitable for seed production.

Global production

World production of pigeon peas is estimated at 4.49 million tons. About 63% of this production comes from India. The total number of hectares grown to pigeon pea is estimated at 5.4 million.

accounts for 72% of the area grown to pigeon pea or 3.9 million hectares.

is the secondary centre of diversity and at present it contributes about 21% of global production with 1.05 million tons.

, Mozambique and Uganda are the major producers in Africa. The pigeon pea is an important

crop of rainfed agriculture in the semiarid tropics. The Indian subcontinent, Africa and Central America, in that order, are the world's three main pigeon pea-producing regions. Pigeon peas are cultivated in more than 25 tropical and subtropical countries, either as a sole crop or intermixed with cereals, such as sorghum (''Sorghum bicolor''),

(''Pennisetum glaucum''), or maize (''Zea mays''), or with other legumes, such as peanuts (''Arachis hypogea''). Being a legume capable of symbiosis with Rhizobia, the bacteria associated with the pigeon pea enrich soils through symbiotic nitrogen fixation. The crop is cultivated on marginal land by resource-poor farmers, who commonly grow traditional medium- and long-duration (5–11 months) landraces. Short-duration pigeon peas (3–4 months) suitable for multiple cropping have recently been developed. Traditionally, the use of such input as fertilizers, weeding, irrigation, and pesticides is minimal, so present yield levels are low (average = ). Greater attention is now being given to managing the crop because it is in high demand at remunerative prices. Pigeon peas are very drought-resistant and can be grown in areas with less than 650 mm annual rainfall. With the maize crop failing three out of five years in drought-prone areas of

, a consortium led by the International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) aimed to promote the pigeon pea as a drought-resistant, nutritious alternative crop.

Nitrogen Fixation

Legumes, which provide highly nutritious products and contribute to soil fertility through biological nitrogen fixation, are one of the most important crops in mixed crop-livestock systems. ''Cajanus cajan'' is an important legume crop with a high N-fixation ability (79 % N derived from the atmosphere). Plant-growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR), together with strains of Rhizobium, can enhance growth and nitrogen fixation in pigeon pea by colonizing thenselves in the plant Root nodule, nodules. These Microbial inoculant, bioinoculants can be added as a single species but also as combined communities. Using a single bioinoculant shows benefits, but mixed communitites of different bioinoculatns have a greater positive impact on nodulation, plant dry mass, as well as shoot and root length. These different community species have different functions for the pigeon pea:

Pests and diseases

Pigeon pea is affected by a variety of pests and insects that can significantly impact crop yield and quality. They can infest the plant from seedling stage till harvest, therefore pests and diseas are the primary cause for low yields. The major pests are moths include the gram pod borer (''Helicoverpa armigera''), which causes defoliation and pod damage; the blue butterfly (''Lampides boeticus''), which infests buds, flowers, and young pods; and the spotted pod borer (''Maruca vitrata''), known for webbing together infested pods and flowers. The tur pod bug (''Clavigralla gibbosa'') is another significant pest of pigeon pea, causing substantial damage to pods and seeds. Current resistance efforts focus on breeding pigeon pea varieties with enhanced resistance to these pests. However, the presence of multiple pest species and the variability in pest pressure across regions pose challenges to achieving consistent resistance. Effective management techniques include integrated pest management (IPM) strategies such as crop rotation, intercropping with non-host plants, timely sowing, and the use of biological control agents like parasitoids and Predation, predators. Chemical control measures, including the application of insecticides like neem-based products and synthetic pyrethroids, are also employed when necessary. Common Diseases of Pigeon Pea: # Fusarium Wilt (''Fusarium udum'') # Dry Root Rot (''Macrophomina phaseolina'') # Phytophthora blight (''Phytophthora drechsleri'') # Alternaria Leaf Spot (''Alternaria alternata'') # Powdery Mildew (''Leveillula taurica'') # Sterility Mosaic Disease (''Pigeon pea sterility mosaic virus'') # Yellow Mosaic Virus (''Mungbean yellow mosaic virus'')

Breeding

Pigeonpea is unique among legumes in that its flowers support both cross-pollination and self-pollination. The bright, nectar-rich flowers attract pollinating insects, allowing natural outcrossing, which averages about 20% but varies with location due to pollinator populations. This level of outcrossing can lead to genetic contamination of parental lines and complicate the selection of lines by reducing the homozygosity of progeny. To mitigate these effects, breeders use techniques such as enclosing flowers in muslin bags or nets to prevent insect pollination. However, natural outcrossing also results in genetically diverse landraces and requires two to three generations of selfing before parental lines can be used in hybridisation programmes. Over 50 years of pigeonpea breeding has resulted in genetic improvements, disease-resistant varieties, a reduction in crop maturity from 300 to less than 90 days, and the introduction of the first legume hybrid technology, which has increased yields by 30-50%. Despite these advances, yield per unit area has remained stable, with improved stability and diversification for farmers. John Spence (scientist), John Spence, a botanist and politician from Trinidad and Tobago, developed several varieties of dwarf pigeon peas which can be harvested by machine, instead of by hand.

Genome sequence

The pigeon pea is the first seed legume plant to have its complete genome sequenced. The sequencing was first accomplished by a group of 31 Indian scientists from the Indian Council of Agricultural Research. It was then followed by a global research partnership, the International Initiative for Pigeon pea Genomics (IIPG), led by ICRISAT with partners such as BGI–Shenzhen (China), US research laboratories like University of Georgia, University of California-Davis, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, and National Centre for Genome Resources, European research institutes like the National University of Ireland Galway. It also received support from the CGIAR Generation Challenge Program, US National Science Foundation and in-kind contribution from the collaborating research institutes. It is the first time that a CGIAR-supported research center such as ICRISAT led the genome sequencing of a food crop. There was a controversy over this as CGIAR did not partner with a national team of scientists and broke away from the Indo American Knowledge Initiative to start their own sequencing in parallel. The 616 mature microRNAs and 3919 Long non-coding RNA, long non-codingRNAs sequences were identified in the genome of pigeon pea.

Dehulling

There are various methods of removing the pulse from its shell. In earlier days hand pounding was common. Several traditional methods are used that can be broadly classified under two categories: the wet method and the dry method. The Wet method Involves water soaking, sun drying and dehulling. The Dry method Involves oil/water application, drying in the sun, and dehulling. Depending on the magnitude of operation, large-scale commercial dehulling of large quantities of pigeon pea into its deskinned, split version, known as toor dal in Hindi, is done in mechanically operated mills.

Uses

Culinary use

Pigeon peas are both a food crop (dried peas, flour, or green vegetable peas) and a forage/cover crop. In combination with cereals, pigeon peas make a well-balanced meal and hence are favored by nutritionists as an essential ingredient for balanced diets. The dried peas may be sprouted briefly, then cooked, for a flavor different from the green or dried peas.

Africa

In Cape Verde they make a soup with the dried pigeon peas called feijão Congo, after its own name, made with dried pigeon peas in a similar manner to Brazilian feijoada. In Kenya and throughout the Swahili-speaking region of East Africa, pigeon peas are utilized in dishes such as , that is usually served for breakfast. In the Enugu State, Enugu state of Nigeria, an Igbo dish called Echicha, Ẹchịcha or ''Achịcha'' is made with palm oil, cocoyam, and seasoning. It is also similar to other dishes from the state such as ''ayarya ji'' and ''fio-fio''. In Ethiopia, the pods, the young shoots and leaves, are cooked and eaten.

Asia

In India, it is one of the most popular Pulse (legume), pulses, being an important source of protein in a mostly vegetarian diet. It is the primary accompaniment to rice or roti and has the status of staple food throughout the length and breadth of India. In regions where it grows, fresh young pods are eaten as a vegetable in dishes such as Sambar (dish), ''sambar''. In the Western Visayas region of the

, pigeon peas are the main ingredient of a very popular dish called "KBL" - an acronym for "Kadyos" (pigeon pea), "Baboy" (pork), and "Langka" (jackfruit). It is a savory soup with rich flavors coming from the pigeon peas, smoked pork preferably the legs or tail, and souring agent called Garcinia binucao, batuan. Raw jackfruit meat is chopped and boiled to soft consistency, and serves as an extender. The violet color of the soup comes from the pigment of the variety commonly grown in the region.

The Americas

In the Caribbean coast of Colombia, such as the Atlántico Department, Atlántico department of Colombia, the sopa de guandú con carne salada (or simply "gandules") is made with pigeon peas, yam, plantain, yuca, and spices. During the week of Holy Week, Semana santa a sweet is made out of pigeon peas called ''dulce de guandules'' which is made by mashed and sweetened pigeon peas with origins in the Maroons, maroon community of San Basilio de Palenque. In the Dominican Republic, a dish made of rice and green pigeon peas called moro de guandules is a traditional holiday food. It is also consumed as guandules guisados, which is a savoury stew with coconut and squash served with white rice. A variety of sancocho is also made based on green pigeon peas that includes poultry, pork, beef, yams, yucca, squash, plantain and others. People of the Dominican Republic, Dominicans have a high regard for this legume and it is consumed widely. In Panama, pigeon peas are used in a dish called ''Arroz con guandú y coco'' or "rice with pigeon peas and coconut" traditionally prepared and consumed during the end of year holidays. In Puerto Rico, ''arroz con gandules'' is made with rice and pigeon peas and sofrito which is a traditional dish, especially during Christmas season. Pigeon peas can also be made in to a stew called ''asopao de gandules'', with Plantain (cooking), plantain balls.'' Escabeche de gandules'' is a spicy pickled pigon pea salad typically served with bread. Pigeon peas are also used to make hummus on the island and called ''hummus de gandules''.

also uses pigeon peas instead of kidney beans in their rice and peas dish, especially during the Christmas season. Trinidad and Tobago and Grenada have their own variant, called ''pelau'', which includes either beef or chicken, and occasionally pumpkin and pieces of cured pig tail. Unlike in some other parts of the Greater Caribbean, in The Bahamas pigeon peas are used in dried form, light brown in color to make the heartier, heavier, signature Bahamian staple dish "Peas 'n Rice."

Oceania

they are used to make a dish called ''gandule rice,'' also called ''godule rice,'' ''gundule rice'', and ''ganduddy rice'' originates on the island from the Puerto Ricans, Puerto Rican community with historic ties to the island and is prepared in a similar manner to that of traditional Puerto Rican arroz con gandules.

Other uses

Agricultural

It is an important ingredient of animal feed used in West Africa, especially in Nigeria, where it is also grown. Leaves, pods, seeds and the residues of seed processing are used to feed all kinds of livestock. In the Republic of the Congo, Congo pigeon peas are utilized as one of the main Forest gardening, food forest and soil improvement crops after using a Slash-and-burn, slash-and-burn fire technique called ''maala.'' Pigeon peas are in some areas an important crop for green manure, providing up to 90 kg nitrogen per hectare. The woody stems of pigeon peas can also be used as firewood, fencing, thatch and as a source for rope fiber.

Medicinal

Pigeon pea has been valued for its medicinal properties since prehistoric times in various regions, including Africa, Egypt and Asia. Today, different countries use different parts of the plant to treat a range of diseases as an alternative medicine. In the Republic of the Congo, Republic of Congo the Kongo people, Kongo, Lari people (Congo), Lari, and Dondo people use the sap of the leaves as an eyedrop for epilepsy. In Nigeria the leaves are used to treat malaria, while in India they are used to treat diabetes, stomach tumours and wounds. In Oman, pigeon pea is used to treat chronic diseases, and in traditional Chinese medicine it is used to relieve pain and control intestinal worms. In Africa, the seeds are used to treat hepatitis and measles. The widespread traditional medicinal use of the plant is attributed to its rich content of phenolic compounds, which have antiviral, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, hypocholesterolemic and hypoglycaemic effects. The leaves also contain flavonoids, terpenoids, essential oils and coumarin, which further enhance its therapeutic potential in the fight against disease. There are different studies looking at how the medicinal compounds of pigeon pea could be used in future. One study, using rats, found that a pigeonpea beverage could be used as an anti-diabetic functional drink. This drink would help to reduce plasma glucose and total cholesterol levels and increase plasma antioxidant status. Therefore, it could be used in future as an alternative strategy to maintain plasma glucose and cholesterol at normal levels and help prevent diabetes complications. Furthermore, pigeon pea could be used as a fermented food as this would increase its antioxidant levels and therefore, have an antiatherosclerotic effect. This would help to improve systolic blood pressure as well as diastolic blood pressure. This benefits cardiovascular health and could be developed as a new dietary supplement or functional food that prevents hypertension. In Madagascar the branches have been used as a Teeth-cleaning twig, teeth cleaning twig.

References

External links

*
Decoding of the Pigeonpea (Arhar) Genome by Indian Scientists
Indian Council of Agricultural Research *

, Indian Council of Agricultural Research

, Indian Council of Agricultural Research {{Taxonbar, from=Q632559 Phaseoleae Edible legumes Flora of India (region) Crops originating from India Nitrogen-fixing crops Tropical agriculture Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus