tigon The tigon is a hybrid offspring of a male tiger (''Panthera tigris'') and a female lion, or lioness (''Panthera leo''). The tiger has a typical felid morphology, with a muscular body, shortened legs, strong forelimbs with wide front paws, a large head and a tail that is about half the length of the rest of its body. It has five digits, including a

dewclaw A dewclaw is a digit – vestigial in some animals – on the foot of many mammals, birds, and reptiles (including some extinct orders, like certain theropods). It commonly grows higher on the leg than the rest of the foot, such that in di ...

, on the front feet and four on the back, all of which have retractile claws that are compact and curved, and can reach long. The ears are rounded and the eyes have a round pupil. The snout ends in a triangular, pink tip with small black dots, the number of which increase with age. The tiger's skull is robust, with a constricted front region, proportionally small, elliptical

orbits In celestial mechanics, an orbit (also known as orbital revolution) is the curved trajectory of an physical body, object such as the trajectory of a planet around a star, or of a natural satellite around a planet, or of an satellite, artificia ...

, long

nasal bone The nasal bones are two small oblong bones, varying in size and form in different individuals; they are placed side by side at the middle and upper part of the face and by their junction, form the bridge of the upper one third of the nose. Eac ...

s and a lengthened

cranium The skull, or cranium, is typically a bony enclosure around the brain of a vertebrate. In some fish, and amphibians, the skull is of cartilage. The skull is at the head end of the vertebrate. In the human, the skull comprises two prominent ...

with a large

sagittal crest A sagittal crest is a ridge of bone running lengthwise along the midline of the top of the skull (at the sagittal suture) of many mammalian and reptilian skulls, among others. The presence of this ridge of bone indicates that there are excepti ...

. It resembles a lion's skull, but differs from it in the concave or flattened underside of the lower jaw and in its longer nasals. The tiger has 30 fairly robust teeth and its somewhat curved canines are the longest in the cat family at . The tiger has a head-body length of with a tail and stands at the shoulder. The Siberian and Bengal tigers are the largest. Male Bengal tigers weigh , and females weigh ; island tigers are the smallest, likely due to

insular dwarfism Insular dwarfism, a form of phyletic dwarfism, is the process and condition of large animals evolving or having a reduced body size when their population's range is limited to a small environment, primarily islands. This natural process is disti ...

. Male Sumatran tigers weigh , and females weigh . The tiger is popularly thought to be the largest living felid species; but since tigers of the different subspecies and populations vary greatly in size and weight, the tiger's average size may be less than the lion's, while the largest tigers are bigger than their lion counterparts.

Coat

The tiger's coat usually has short hairs, reaching up to , though the hairs of the northern-living Siberian tiger can reach . Belly hairs tend to be longer than back hairs. The density of their fur is usually thin, though the Siberian tiger develops a particularly thick winter coat. The tiger has lines of fur around the face and long whiskers, especially in males. It has an orange colouration that varies from yellowish to reddish. White fur covers the underside, from head to tail, along with the inner surface of the legs and parts of the face. On the back of the ears, it has a prominent white spot, which is surrounded by black. The tiger is marked with distinctive black or dark brown stripes, which are uniquely patterned in each individual. The stripes are mostly vertical, but those on the limbs and forehead are horizontal. They are more concentrated towards the backside and those on the trunk may reach under the belly. The tips of stripes are generally sharp and some may split up or split and fuse again. Tail stripes are thick bands and a black tip marks the end. The tiger is one of only a few striped cat species. Stripes are advantageous for

camouflage Camouflage is the use of any combination of materials, coloration, or illumination for concealment, either by making animals or objects hard to see, or by disguising them as something else. Examples include the leopard's spotted coat, the b ...

in vegetation with vertical patterns of light and shade, such as trees, reeds and tall grass.Miquelle, D. "Tiger" in This is supported by a

Fourier analysis In mathematics, Fourier analysis () is the study of the way general functions may be represented or approximated by sums of simpler trigonometric functions. Fourier analysis grew from the study of Fourier series, and is named after Joseph Fo ...

study showing that the striping patterns line up with their environment. The orange colour may also aid in concealment, as the tiger's prey is

colour blind Color blindness, color vision deficiency (CVD) or color deficiency is the decreased ability to color vision, see color or differences in color. The severity of color blindness ranges from mostly unnoticeable to full absence of color percept ...

and possibly perceives the tiger as green and blended in with the vegetation.

Colour variations

The three colour variants of Bengal tigers – nearly stripeless snow-white, white and golden – are now virtually non-existent in the wild due to the reduction of wild tiger populations but continue in captive populations. The

white tiger The white tiger (ashy tiger) is a leucistic morph of the tiger, typically the Bengal tiger. It is occasionally reported in the Indian wilderness. It has the typical black stripes of a tiger, but its coat is otherwise white or near-white, and ...

has a white background colour with sepia-brown stripes. The

golden tiger A golden tiger, sometimes called a golden tabby tiger, is a Bengal tiger with a colour variation caused by a recessive gene. Like white tigers and black tigers, it is a polymorphism (biology), morph, and not a separate subspecies. Known for its b ...

is pale golden with reddish-brown stripes. The snow-white tiger is a morph with extremely faint stripes and a pale sepia-brown ringed tail. White and golden morphs are the result of an autosomal recessive trait with a white

locus Locus (plural loci) is Latin for "place". It may refer to: Mathematics and science * Locus (mathematics), the set of points satisfying a particular condition, often forming a curve * Root locus analysis, a diagram visualizing the position of r ...

and a

wideband In communications, a system is wideband when the message bandwidth significantly exceeds the coherence bandwidth of the channel. Some communication links have such a high data rate that they are forced to use a wide bandwidth; other links ma ...

locus, respectively. The snow-white variation is caused by

polygene A polygene is a member of a group of non- epistatic genes that interact additively to influence a phenotypic trait, thus contributing to multiple-gene inheritance (polygenic inheritance, multigenic inheritance, quantitative inheritance), a type o ...

s with both white and wideband loci. The breeding of white tigers is controversial, as they have no use for conservation. Only 0.001% of wild tigers have the genes for this colour morph and the overrepresentation of white tigers in captivity is the result of

inbreeding Inbreeding is the production of offspring from the mating or breeding of individuals or organisms that are closely genetic distance, related genetically. By analogy, the term is used in human reproduction, but more commonly refers to the genet ...

. Hence, their continued breeding will risk both

inbreeding depression Inbreeding depression is the reduced biological fitness caused by loss of genetic diversity as a consequence of inbreeding, the breeding of individuals closely related genetically. This loss of genetic diversity results from small population siz ...

and loss of

genetic variability Genetic variability is either the presence of, or the generation of, genetic differences. It is defined as "the formation of individuals differing in genotype, or the presence of genotypically different individuals, in contrast to environmentally ...

in captive tigers. Pseudo-

melanistic Melanism is the congenital excess of melanin in an organism resulting in dark pigment. Pseudomelanism, also called abundism, is another variant of pigmentation, identifiable by dark spots or enlarged stripes, which cover a large part of the bod ...

tigers with thick, merged stripes have been recorded in

Simlipal National Park Simlipal National Park (ISO: ''Śimiḷipāḷa Jātīya Udyāna'') is a national park and tiger reserve in the Mayurbhanj district in the Indian state of Odisha covering . It is part of the Mayurbhanj Elephant Reserve, which includes three pr ...

and three Indian zoos; a

population genetic Population genetics is a subfield of genetics that deals with genetic differences within and among populations, and is a part of evolutionary biology. Studies in this branch of biology examine such phenomena as adaptation, speciation, and popula ...

analysis of Indian tiger samples revealed that this

phenotype In genetics, the phenotype () is the set of observable characteristics or traits of an organism. The term covers the organism's morphology (physical form and structure), its developmental processes, its biochemical and physiological propert ...

is caused by a

mutation In biology, a mutation is an alteration in the nucleic acid sequence of the genome of an organism, virus, or extrachromosomal DNA. Viral genomes contain either DNA or RNA. Mutations result from errors during DNA or viral replication, ...

of a

transmembrane A transmembrane protein is a type of integral membrane protein that spans the entirety of the cell membrane. Many transmembrane proteins function as gateways to permit the transport of specific substances across the membrane. They frequently u ...

aminopeptidase Aminopeptidases are enzymes that catalyze the cleavage of amino acids from the N-terminus (beginning), of proteins or peptides. They are found in many organisms; in the cell, they are found in many organelles, in the cytosol (internal cellular f ...

gene. Around 37% of the Simlipal tiger population has this feature, which has been linked to

genetic isolation A genetic isolate is a population of organisms that has little to no genetic mixing with other organisms of the same species due to geographic isolation or other factors that prevent reproduction. Genetic isolates form new species through an evolu ...

Distribution and habitat

The tiger historically ranged from eastern Turkey, northern Iran and Afghanistan to Central Asia and from northern Pakistan through the

Indian subcontinent The Indian subcontinent is a physiographic region of Asia below the Himalayas which projects into the Indian Ocean between the Bay of Bengal to the east and the Arabian Sea to the west. It is now divided between Bangladesh, India, and Pakista ...

and Indochina to southeastern Siberia, Sumatra, Java and Bali. As of 2022, it inhabits less than 7% of its historical distribution and has a scattered range in the Indian subcontinent, the

Indochinese Peninsula Mainland Southeast Asia (historically known as Indochina and the Indochinese Peninsula) is the continental portion of Southeast Asia. It lies east of the Indian subcontinent and south of Mainland China and is bordered by the Indian Ocean to th ...

, Sumatra, northeastern China and the

Russian Far East The Russian Far East ( rus, Дальний Восток России, p=ˈdalʲnʲɪj vɐˈstok rɐˈsʲiɪ) is a region in North Asia. It is the easternmost part of Russia and the Asia, Asian continent, and is coextensive with the Far Easte ...

. As of 2020, India had the largest extent of global tiger habitat with , followed by Russia with . The tiger mainly lives in forest habitats and is highly adaptable.Sunquist, M. (2010). "What is a Tiger? Ecology and Behaviour" in Records in Central Asia indicate that it primarily inhabited

Tugay Tugay is a form of riparian forest or woodland associated with fluvial and floodplain areas in arid climates. These wetlands are subject to periodic inundation, and largely dependent on floods and groundwater rather than directly from rainfal ...

riverine forests and hilly and lowland forests in the

Caucasus The Caucasus () or Caucasia (), is a region spanning Eastern Europe and Western Asia. It is situated between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, comprising parts of Southern Russia, Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan. The Caucasus Mountains, i ...

. In the

Amur The Amur River () or Heilong River ( zh, s=黑龙江) is a perennial river in Northeast Asia, forming the natural border between the Russian Far East and Northeast China (historically the Outer Manchuria, Outer and Inner Manchuria). The Amur ...

Ussuri The Ussuri ( ; ) or Wusuli ( ) is a river that runs through Khabarovsk and Primorsky Krais, Russia and the southeast region of Northeast China in the province of Heilongjiang. It rises in the Sikhote-Alin mountain range, flowing north and formi ...

region of Russia and China, it inhabits

Korean pine ''Pinus koraiensis'' is a species of pine known commonly as the Korean pine. It is a relic species of the Tertiary, identified as a rare tree species by United Nations. It is native to eastern Asia: Korea, northeastern China, Mongolia, the tempe ...

and

temperate broadleaf and mixed forest Temperate broadleaf and mixed forest is a temperate climate terrestrial habitat type defined by the World Wide Fund for Nature, with broadleaf tree ecoregions, and with conifer and broadleaf tree mixed coniferous forest ecoregions. Thes ...

riparian forest A riparian forest or riparian woodland is a forested or wooded area of land adjacent to a body of water such as a river, stream, pond, lake, marshland, estuary, canal, Sink (geography), sink, or reservoir. Due to the broad nature of the definitio ...

s serve as dispersal corridors, providing food and water for both tigers and

ungulate Ungulates ( ) are members of the diverse clade Euungulata ("true ungulates"), which primarily consists of large mammals with Hoof, hooves. Once part of the clade "Ungulata" along with the clade Paenungulata, "Ungulata" has since been determined ...

s.Miquelle, D. G.; Smirnov, E. N.; Merrill, T. W.; Myslenkov, A. E.; Quigley, H.; Hornocker, M. G. & Schleyer, B. (1999). "Hierarchical spatial analysis of Amur tiger relationships to habitat and prey" in On the Indian subcontinent, it inhabits mainly

tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests (TSMF), also known as tropical moist forest, is a subtropical and tropical forest habitat type defined by the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF). Description TSMF is generally found in la ...

temperate broadleaf and mixed forests Temperate broadleaf and mixed forest is a temperate climate terrestrial habitat type defined by the World Wide Fund for Nature, with broadleaf tree ecoregions, and with conifer and broadleaf tree mixed coniferous forest ecoregions. These ...

tropical moist evergreen forest Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests (TSMF), also known as tropical moist forest, is a subtropical and tropical forest habitat type defined by the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF). Description TSMF is generally found in large ...

tropical dry forest The tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forest is a habitat type defined by the World Wide Fund for Nature and is located at tropical and subtropical latitudes. Though these forests occur in climates that are warm year-round, and may receive ...

alluvial plain An alluvial plain is a plain (an essentially flat landform) created by the deposition of sediment over a long period by one or more rivers coming from highland regions, from which alluvial soil forms. A ''floodplain'' is part of the process, bei ...

s and the

mangrove forest Mangrove forests, also called mangrove swamps, mangrove thickets or mangals, are productive wetlands that occur in coastal intertidal zones. Mangrove forests grow mainly at tropical and subtropical latitudes because mangrove trees cannot withsta ...

s of the

Sundarbans Sundarbans (; pronounced ) is a mangrove forest area in the Ganges Delta formed by the confluence of the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna Rivers in the Bay of Bengal. It spans the area from the Hooghly River in India's state of West Bengal ...

.Wikramanayake, E. D.; Dinerstein, E.; Robinson, J. G.; Karanth, K. U.; Rabinowitz, A.; Olson, D.; Mathew, T.; Hedao, P.; Connor, M.; Hemley, G. & Bolze, D. (1999). "Where can tigers live in the future? A framework for identifying high-priority areas for the conservation of tigers in the wild" in In the

Eastern Himalaya ] The Eastern Himalayas extend from eastern Nepal across Northeast India, Bhutan, the Tibet Autonomous Region to Yunnan in China and northern Myanmar. The climate of this region is influenced by the monsoon of South Asia from June to September. It ...

s, it was documented in

temperate forest A temperate forest is a forest found between the tropical and boreal regions, located in the temperate zone. It is the second largest terrestrial biome, covering 25% of the world's forest area, only behind the boreal forest, which covers about 3 ...

up to an elevation of in Bhutan, of in the

Mishmi Hills The Mishmi Hills are located at the northeastern tip of India, in northeastern Arunachal Pradesh. On the Chinese side, they form the southern parts of Nyingchi Prefecture in the Tibet Autonomous Region. These hills occur at the junction of Nor ...

and of in

Mêdog County Mêdog (; zh, s=墨脱县), formerly known as Pemako ( "Lotus Array"), is a county of Nyingchi in the Tibet Autonomous Region, China. Pemako is considered famous because it is the Nyingma master Dudjom Rinpoche's birthplace, and it is a proph ...

, southeastern Tibet. In Thailand, it lives in

deciduous In the fields of horticulture and botany, the term deciduous () means "falling off at maturity" and "tending to fall off", in reference to trees and shrubs that seasonally shed Leaf, leaves, usually in the autumn; to the shedding of petals, aft ...

and

evergreen In botany, an evergreen is a plant which has Leaf, foliage that remains green and functional throughout the year. This contrasts with deciduous plants, which lose their foliage completely during the winter or dry season. Consisting of many diffe ...

forests. In Sumatra, it inhabits lowland

peat swamp forest Peat swamp forests are tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests, tropical moist forests where waterlogged soil prevents dead leaves and wood from fully decomposing. Over time, this creates a thick layer of acidic peat. Large areas of th ...

s and rugged

montane forest Montane ecosystems are found on the slopes of mountains. The alpine climate in these regions strongly affects the ecosystem because temperatures lapse rate, fall as elevation increases, causing the ecosystem to stratify. This stratification is ...

Population density

Camera trap A camera trap is a camera that is automatically triggered by motion in its vicinity, like the presence of an animal or a human being. It is typically equipped with a motion sensor—usually a passive infrared (PIR) sensor or an active infrared ...

ping during 2010–2015 in the deciduous and subtropical pine forest of

Jim Corbett National Park Jim Corbett National Park is a national park in India located in the Nainital district of Uttarakhand state. The first national park in India, it was established in 1936 during the British Raj and named ''Hailey National Park'' after Willi ...

, northern India revealed a stable tiger

population density Population density (in agriculture: Standing stock (disambiguation), standing stock or plant density) is a measurement of population per unit land area. It is mostly applied to humans, but sometimes to other living organisms too. It is a key geog ...

of 12–17 individuals per in an area of . In northern Myanmar, the population density in a sampled area of roughly in a mosaic of tropical broadleaf forest and grassland was estimated to be 0.21–0.44 tigers per as of 2009. Population density in mixed deciduous and semi-evergreen forests of Thailand's

Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary The Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuary (, ) is in Uthai Thani and Tak Provinces, Thailand. The park was established in 1974, and is part of the largest intact seasonal tropical forest complex in Mainland Southeast Asia. It, coupled with the Th ...

was estimated at 2.01 tigers per ; during the 1970s and 1980s,

Khlong Lan National Park Khlong Lan National Park (Thai alphabet, Thai อุทยานแห่งชาติคลองลาน) is a List of national parks of Thailand, national park in Thailand. Description Khlong Lan National Park is situated in the Dawna Ran ...

s, where population density was much lower, estimated at only 0.359 tigers per as of 2016. Population density in

dipterocarp Dipterocarpaceae is a family of flowering plants with 22 genera and about 695 known species of mainly lowland tropical forest trees. Their distribution is pantropical, from northern South America to Africa, the Seychelles, India, Indochina, Indo ...

and montane forests in northern Malaysia was estimated at 1.47–2.43 adult tigers per in

Royal Belum State Park Belum-Temengor is the largest continuous forest complex in Peninsular Malaysia. Specifically, it is located in the Malaysian state of Perak (Hulu Perak) and crosses into Southern Thailand. Belum-Temenggor is divided into two sections. Belum is lo ...

, but 0.3–0.92 adult tigers per in the unprotected selectively logged Temengor Forest Reserve.

Behaviour and ecology

Camera trap data show that tigers in

Chitwan National Park Chitwan National Park is the first national park of Nepal. It was established in 1973 as the Royal Chitwan National Park and was granted the status of a World Heritage Site in 1984. It covers an area of in the Terai of south-central Nepal. It ra ...

avoided locations frequented by people and were more active at night than during day. In

Sundarbans National Park Sundarbans National Park is a national park in West Bengal, India, and core part of tiger reserve and Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve, biosphere reserve. It is part of the Sundarbans on the Ganges Delta and adjacent to the Sundarban Reserve Fores ...

, six radio-collared tigers were most active from dawn to early morning and reached their zenith around 7:00 o'clock in the morning. A three-year-long camera trap survey in

Shuklaphanta National Park Shuklaphanta National Park is a national park in the Terai of the Far-Western Region, Nepal, covering of open grasslands, forests, riverbeds and wetlands at an elevation of . It is bounded by the Mahakali river in the west and south. A small p ...

revealed that tigers were most active from dusk until midnight. In northeastern China, tigers were

crepuscular In zoology, a crepuscular animal is one that is active primarily during the twilight period, being matutinal (active during dawn), vespertine (biology), vespertine/vespertinal (active during dusk), or both. This is distinguished from diurnalit ...

and active at night with activity peaking at dawn and dusk; they were largely active at the same time as their prey. The tiger is a powerful swimmer and easily transverses rivers as wide as ; it immerses in water, particularly on hot days. In general, it is less capable of climbing trees than many other cats due to its size, but cubs under 16 months old may routinely do so. An adult was recorded climbing up a smooth pipal tree.

Social spacing

Adult tigers lead largely solitary lives within

home range A home range is the area in which an animal lives and moves on a periodic basis. It is related to the concept of an animal's territory which is the area that is actively defended. The concept of a home range was introduced by W. H. Burt in 1943. ...

s or

territories A territory is an area of land, sea, or space, belonging or connected to a particular country, person, or animal. In international politics, a territory is usually a geographic area which has not been granted the powers of self-government, ...

, the size of which mainly depends on prey abundance, geographic area and sex of the individual. Males and females defend their home ranges from those of the same sex and the home range of a male encompasses that of multiple females. Two females in the

had home ranges of . In Panna Tiger Reserve, the home ranges of five reintroduced females varied from in winter to in summer and to during the

monsoon A monsoon () is traditionally a seasonal reversing wind accompanied by corresponding changes in precipitation but is now used to describe seasonal changes in Atmosphere of Earth, atmospheric circulation and precipitation associated with annu ...

; three males had large home ranges in winter, in summer and during monsoon seasons. In Sikhote-Alin Biosphere Reserve, 14 females had home ranges and five resident males of that overlapped with those of up to five females. When tigresses in the same reserve had cubs of up to four months of age, they reduced their home ranges to stay near their young and steadily enlarged them until their offspring were 13–18 months old. The tiger is a long-ranging species and individuals disperse over distances of up to to reach tiger populations in other areas. Young tigresses establish their first home ranges close to their mothers' while males migrate further than their female counterparts. Four radio-collared females in Chitwan dispersed between and 10 males between . A subadult male lives as a transient in another male's home range until he is older and strong enough to challenge the resident male. Tigers mark their home ranges by

spraying urine Urination is the release of urine from the bladder through the urethra in placental mammals, or through the cloaca in other vertebrates. It is the urinary system's form of excretion. It is also known medically as micturition, voiding, ure ...

on vegetation and rocks, clawing or

scent rubbing Scent rubbing is a behavior where a mammal rubs its body against an object in their environment, sometimes in ones covered with strongly odored substances. It is typically shown in carnivores, although many mammals exhibit this behavior. Lowering ...

trees and marking trails with

faeces Feces (also known as faeces American and British English spelling differences#ae and oe, or fæces; : faex) are the solid or semi-solid remains of food that was not digested in the small intestine, and has been broken down by bacteria in the ...

anal gland The anal glands or anal sacs are small glands near the anus in many mammals. They are situated in between the external anal sphincter muscle and internal anal sphincter muscle. In non-human mammals, the secretions of the anal glands contain most ...

secretions and ground scrapings. Scent markings also allow an individual to pick up information on another's identity. Unclaimed home ranges, particularly those that belonged to a deceased individual, can be taken over in days or weeks. Male tigers are generally less tolerant of other males within their home ranges than females are of other females. Disputes are usually solved by intimidation rather than fighting. Once dominance has been established, a male may tolerate a subordinate within his range, as long as they do not come near him. The most serious disputes tend to occur between two males competing for a female in

oestrus The estrous cycle (, originally ) is a set of recurring physiological changes induced by reproductive hormones in females of mammalian subclass Theria. Estrous cycles start after sexual maturity in females and are interrupted by anestrous phas ...

. Though tigers mostly live alone, relationships between individuals can be complex. Tigers are particularly social at kills and a male tiger will sometimes share a carcass with the females and cubs within this home range and unlike male lions, will allow them to feed on the kill before he is finished with it. However, a female is more tense when encountering another female at a kill.

Communication

During friendly encounters and bonding, tigers rub against each other's bodies. Facial expressions include the "defence threat", which involves a wrinkled face, bared teeth, pulled-back ears and widened pupils. Both males and females show a

flehmen response The flehmen response (; from German , and Upper Saxon German ), also called the flehmen position, flehmen reaction, flehmen grimace, flehming, or flehmening, is a behavior in which an animal curls back its upper lip exposing its front teeth, i ...

, a characteristic curled-lip grimace, when smelling urine markings. Males also use the flehmen to detect the markings made by tigresses in oestrus. Tigers will move their ears around to display the white spots, particularly during aggressive encounters and between mothers and cubs. They also use their tails to signal their mood. To show cordiality, the tail sticks up and sways slowly, while an apprehensive tiger lowers its tail or wags it side-to-side. When calm, the tail hangs low. Tigers are normally silent but can produce numerous vocalisations. They

roar A roar is a type of animal vocalization that is loud, deep and resonating. Many mammals have evolved to produce roars and other roar-like vocals for purposes such as long-distance communication and intimidation. These include various species of ...

to signal their presence to other individuals over long distances. This vocalisation is forced through an open mouth as it closes and can be heard away. They roar multiple times in a row and others respond in kind. Tigers also roar during mating and a mother will roar to call her cubs to her. When tense, tigers moan, a sound similar to a roar but softer and made when the mouth is at least partially closed. Moaning can be heard away. Aggressive encounters involve

growling Growling is a low, guttural Animal communication, vocalization produced by animals as an aggression, aggressive warning but can also be found in other contexts such as playful behaviors or mating. Different animals will use growling in specific ...

, snarling and hissing. An explosive "coughing roar" or "coughing snarl" is emitted through an open mouth and exposed teeth. In friendlier situations, tigers

prusten Prusten is a form of communicative behaviour exhibited by some members of the family Felidae. Prusten is also referred to as chuffing or chuffle (verb and noun). It is described as a short, low intensity, non-threatening vocalization. In order to ...

, a soft, low-frequency snorting sound similar to purring in smaller cats. Tiger mothers communicate with their cubs by grunting, while cubs call back with

miaow A meow or miaow is a cat vocalization. ''Meows'' may have diverse tones in terms of their sound, and what is heard can vary from being chattered to calls, murmurs, and whispers. Adult cats rarely meow to each other. Thus, an adult cat meowin ...

s. When startled, they "woof". They produce a deer-like "pok" sound for unknown reasons, but most often at kills.

Hunting and diet

The tiger is a

carnivore A carnivore , or meat-eater (Latin, ''caro'', genitive ''carnis'', meaning meat or "flesh" and ''vorare'' meaning "to devour"), is an animal or plant Plants are the eukaryotes that form the Kingdom (biology), kingdom Plantae; they ar ...

and an

apex predator An apex predator, also known as a top predator or superpredator, is a predator at the top of a food chain, without natural predators of its own. Apex predators are usually defined in terms of trophic dynamics, meaning that they occupy the hig ...

Abundance Abundance may refer to: In science and technology * Abundance (economics), the opposite of scarcities * Abundance (ecology), the relative representation of a species in a community * Abundance, the defining characteristic of abundant numbers * ...

and body weight of prey species are assumed to be the main criteria for the tiger's prey selection, both inside and outside protected areas. It feeds mainly on large and medium-sized ungulates, with a preference for

sambar deer The sambar (''Rusa unicolor'') is a large deer native to the Indian subcontinent, South China and Southeast Asia that is listed as a vulnerable species on the IUCN Red List since 2008. Populations have declined substantially due to severe huntin ...

Manchurian wapiti The Manchurian wapiti (''Cervus canadensis xanthopygus'') is a putative subspecies of the wapiti native to East Asia. It may be identified as its own species, ''Cervus xanthopygus''. Description The Manchurian wapiti's coat is reddish brown dur ...

barasingha The barasingha (''Rucervus duvaucelii''), sometimes barasinghe, also known as the swamp deer, is a deer species distributed in the Indian subcontinent. Populations in northern and central India are fragmented, and two isolated populations occu ...

gaur The gaur (''Bos gaurus''; ) is a large bovine native to the Indian Subcontinent and Southeast Asia, and has been listed as Vulnerable species, Vulnerable on the IUCN Red List since 1986. The global population was estimated at a maximum of 21,000 ...

and

wild boar The wild boar (''Sus scrofa''), also known as the wild swine, common wild pig, Eurasian wild pig, or simply wild pig, is a Suidae, suid native to much of Eurasia and North Africa, and has been introduced to the Americas and Oceania. The speci ...

. It also preys opportunistically on smaller species like

monkey Monkey is a common name that may refer to most mammals of the infraorder Simiiformes, also known as simians. Traditionally, all animals in the group now known as simians are counted as monkeys except the apes. Thus monkeys, in that sense, co ...

peafowl Peafowl is a common name for two bird species of the genus '' Pavo'' and one species of the closely related genus '' Afropavo'' within the tribe Pavonini of the family Phasianidae (the pheasants and their allies). Male peafowl are referred t ...

and other ground-based birds,

porcupine Porcupines are large rodents with coats of sharp Spine (zoology), spines, or quills, that protect them against predation. The term covers two Family (biology), families of animals: the Old World porcupines of the family Hystricidae, and the New ...

s and fish. Occasional attacks on

Asian elephant The Asian elephant (''Elephas maximus''), also known as the Asiatic elephant, is the only living ''Elephas'' species. It is the largest living land animal in Asia and the second largest living Elephantidae, elephantid in the world. It is char ...

s and

Indian rhinoceros The Indian rhinoceros (''Rhinoceros unicornis''), also known as the greater one-horned rhinoceros, great Indian rhinoceros or Indian rhino, is a species of rhinoceros found in the Indian subcontinent. It is the second largest living rhinocer ...

es have also been reported. More often, tigers take the more vulnerable calves. They sometimes prey on livestock and dogs in close proximity to settlements. Tigers occasionally consume vegetation, fruit and minerals for

dietary fibre Dietary fiber (fibre in Commonwealth English) or roughage is the portion of plant-derived food that cannot be completely broken down by human digestive enzymes. Dietary fibers are diverse in chemical composition and can be grouped generally b ...

and supplements. Tigers learn to hunt from their mothers, though the ability to hunt may be partially inborn. Depending on the size of the prey, they typically kill weekly though mothers must kill more often. Families hunt together when cubs are old enough. They search for prey using vision and hearing. A tiger will also wait at a watering hole for prey to come by, particularly during hot summer days. It is an ambush predator and when approaching potential prey, it crouches with the head lowered and hides in foliage. It switches between creeping forward and staying still. A tiger may even doze off and can stay in the same spot for as long as a day, waiting for prey and launch an attack when the prey is close enough, usually within . If the prey spots it before then, the cat does not pursue further. A tiger can sprint and leap ; it is not a long-distance runner and gives up a chase if prey outpaces it over a certain distance. The tiger attacks from behind or at the sides and tries to knock the target off balance. It latches onto prey with its forelimbs, twisting and turning during the struggle and tries to pull it to the ground. The tiger generally applies a bite to the throat until its victim dies of

strangulation Strangling or strangulation is compression of the neck that may lead to unconsciousness or death by causing an increasingly hypoxic state in the brain by restricting the flow of oxygen through the trachea. Fatal strangulation typically occurs ...

. It has an average bite force at the canine tips of 1234.3

newtons The newton (symbol: N) is the unit of force in the International System of Units (SI). Expressed in terms of SI base units, it is 1 kg⋅m/s2, the force that accelerates a mass of one kilogram at one metre per second squared. The unit i ...

. Holding onto the throat puts the cat out of reach of horns, antlers, tusks and hooves. Tigers are adaptable killers and may use other methods, including ripping the throat or breaking the neck. Large prey may be disabled by a bite to the back of the

hock Hock may refer to: * Hock (wine), a type of wine * Hock (anatomy), part of an animal's leg * To leave an item with a pawnbroker * Hock (surname) * Richard "Hock" Walsh (1948-1999), Canadian blues singer * A type of wine bottle A wine bottl ...

, severing the tendon. Swipes from the large paws are capable of stunning or breaking the skull of a

water buffalo The water buffalo (''Bubalus bubalis''), also called domestic water buffalo, Asian water buffalo and Asiatic water buffalo, is a large bovid originating in the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia. Today, it is also kept in Italy, the Balkans ...

. They kill small prey with a bite to the back of the neck or head. Estimates of the success rate for hunting tigers range from a low of 5% to a high of 50%. They are sometimes killed or injured by large or dangerous prey like gaur, buffalo and boar. Tigers typically move kills to a private, usually vegetated spot no further than , though they have been recorded dragging them . They are strong enough to drag the carcass of a fully grown buffalo for some distance. They rest for a while before eating and can consume as much as of meat in one session, but feed on a carcass for several days, leaving little for scavengers.

Competitors

In much of their range, tigers share habitat with leopards and

dhole The dhole ( ; ''Cuon alpinus'') is a canid native to South, East and Southeast Asia. It is anatomically distinguished from members of the genus ''Canis'' in several aspects: its skull is convex rather than concave in profile, it lacks a third ...

s. They typically dominate both of them, though with dholes it depends on their pack size. Interactions between the three predators involve chasing, stealing kills and direct killing. Large dhole packs may kill tigers. Tigers, leopards and dholes coexist by hunting different sized prey. In

Nagarhole National Park Nagarahole National Park is a national park located in Kodagu district and Mysore district in Karnataka, India. This park was declared the 37th Tiger Reserve of India in 1999. It is part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve. The Western Ghats ...

, the average weight for tiger kills was found to be , compared to for leopards and for dholes. In

Kui Buri National Park Kui Buri National Park is a national park of Thailand in the Tenasserim Hills in Prachuap Khiri Khan Province. It was established as the 90th national park in March 1999. Geography The park, with an area of 605,625 rai ~ covers parts of the ...

, following a reduction in prey numbers, tigers continued to kill favoured prey while leopards and dholes increased their consumption of small prey. Both leopards and dholes can live successfully in tiger habitat when there is abundant food and vegetation cover. Otherwise, they appear to be less common where tigers are numerous. The recovery of the tiger population in

Rajaji National Park Rajaji National Park is a national park and tiger reserve in the Haridwar, Dehradun and Pauri Garhwal districts of the Indian state of Uttarakhand. It encompasses an area of in the Sivalik Hills. In 1983, three wildlife sanctuaries in th ...

during the 2000s led to a reduction in leopard population densities. Similarly, at two sites in central India the size of dhole packs was negatively correlated with tiger densities. Leopard and dhole distribution in Kui Buri correlated with both prey access and tiger scarcity. In

Jigme Dorji National Park Jigme Dorji National Park (JDNP), named after the late Jigme Dorji Wangchuck, is the second-largest National Park of Bhutan. History It was established in 1974 and stretches over an area of 4316 km2, thereby spanning all three climate z ...

, tigers were found to inhabit the deeper parts of forests while the smaller predators were pushed closer to the fringes.

Reproduction and life cycle

The tiger generally

mates Mates is an English surname, and may refer to: * Mates (born 1964), British newsreader and journalist * Michael Mates (born 1934), British politician * Frederick S. Mates, founded the Mates Investment Fund in 1967 that crashed in the bear market ...

all year round, particularly between November and April. A tigress is in oestrus for three to six days at a time, separated by three to nine week intervals. A resident male mates with all the females within his home range, who signal their receptiveness by roaring and marking. Younger, transient males are also attracted, leading to a fight in which the more dominant, resident male drives the usurper off. During courtship, the male is cautious with the female as he waits for her to show signs she is ready to mate. She signals to him by positioning herself in

lordosis Lordosis is historically defined as an ''abnormal'' inward curvature of the lumbar spine. However, the terms ''lordosis'' and ''lordotic'' are also used to refer to the normal inward curvature of the lumbar and cervical vertebrae, cervical regio ...

with her tail to the side.

Copulation Sexual intercourse (also coitus or copulation) is a sexual activity typically involving the insertion of the erect male penis inside the female vagina and followed by thrusting motions for sexual pleasure, reproduction, or both.Sexual inte ...

typically lasts no more than 20 seconds, with the male biting the female by the scruff of her neck. After it is finished, the male quickly pulls away as the female may turn and slap him. Tiger pairs may stay together for up to four days and mate multiple times.

Gestation Gestation is the period of development during the carrying of an embryo, and later fetus, inside viviparous animals (the embryo develops within the parent). It is typical for mammals, but also occurs for some non-mammals. Mammals during pregn ...

lasts around or over three months. A tigress gives birth in a secluded location, be it in dense vegetation, in a cave or under a rocky shelter. Litters consist of as many as seven cubs, but two or three are more typical. Newborn cubs weigh and are blind and Precociality and altriciality, altricial. The mother licks and cleans her cubs, suckles them and viciously defends them from any potential threat. Cubs open their eyes at the age of three to 14 days and their vision becomes clear after a few more weeks. They can leave the denning site after two months and around the same time they start eating meat. The mother only leaves them alone to hunt and even then she does not travel far. When she suspects an area is no longer safe, she moves her cubs to a new spot, transporting them one by one by grabbing them by the scruff of the neck with her mouth. A tigress in Sikhote-Alin Biosphere Reserve maximised the time spent with her cubs by reducing her home range, killing larger prey and returning to her den more rapidly than without cubs; when the cubs started to eat meat, she took them to kill sites, thereby optimising their protection and access to food. In the same reserve, one of 21 cubs died in over eight years of monitoring and mortality did not differ between male and female juveniles. Tiger monitoring over six years in Ranthambore Tiger Reserve indicated an average annual survival rate of around 85 percent for 74 male and female cubs; survival rate increased to 97 percent for both males and female juveniles of one to two years of age. Causes of cub mortality include predators, floods, fires, death of the mother and fatal injuries. Panthera tigris altaica 13 - Buffalo Zoo

Panthera tigris altaica 13 - Buffalo Zoo

After around two months, the cubs are able to follow their mother. They still hide in vegetation when she goes hunting. Young bond through play fighting and practice stalking. A hierarchy develops in the litter, with the biggest cub, often a male, being the most dominant and the first to eat its fill at a kill. Around the age of six months, cubs are fully weaned and have more freedom to explore their environment. Between eight and ten months, they accompany their mother on hunts. A cub can make a kill as early as 11 months and reach independence as a juvenile of 18 to 24 months of age; males become independent earlier than females. Radio-collared tigers in Chitwan started leaving their natal areas at the age of 19 months. Young females are Sexual maturity, sexually mature at three to four years, whereas males are at four to five years. Generation time, Generation length of the tiger is about 7–10 years. Wild Bengal tigers live 12–15 years. Data from the International Tiger Studbook 1938–2018 indicate that captive tigers lived up to 19 years. The father does not play a role in raising the young, but he encounters and interacts with them. The resident male appears to visit the female–cub families within his home range. They socialise and even share kills. One male was recorded looking after cubs whose mother had died. By defending his home range, the male protects the females and cubs from other males. When a new male takes over, dependent cubs are at risk of Infanticide (zoology), infanticide as the male attempts to sire his own young with the females. A seven-year long study in Chitwan National Park revealed that 12 of 56 detected cubs and juveniles were killed by new males taking over home ranges.

Health and diseases

Tigers are recorded as hosts for various parasites including tapeworms like ''Diphyllobothrium erinacei'', ''Taenia pisiformis'' in India and nematodes like ''Toxocara'' species in India and ''Physaloptera preputialis'', ''Dirofilaria ursi'' and ''Uiteinarta'' species in Siberia. Canine distemper is known to occur in Siberian tigers. A morbillivirus infection was the likely cause of death of a tigress in the Russian Far East that was also tested positive for feline panleukopenia and feline coronavirus. Blood samples from 11 adult tigers in Nepal showed antibody, antibodies for canine parvovirus-2, feline herpesvirus, feline coronavirus, leptospirosis and ''Toxoplasma gondii''.

Threats

The tiger has been listed as Endangered on the IUCN Red List since 1986 and the global tiger population is thought to have continuously declined from an estimated population of 5,000–8,262 tigers in the late 1990s to 3,726–5,578 individuals estimated as of 2022. During 2001–2020, landscapes where tigers live declined from to . Habitat destruction, habitat fragmentation and

poaching Poaching is the illegal hunting or capturing of wild animals, usually associated with land use rights. Poaching was once performed by impoverished peasants for subsistence purposes and to supplement meager diets. It was set against the huntin ...

for fur and body parts are the major threats that contributed to the decrease of tiger populations in all range countries. Protected areas in central India are highly fragmented due to linear infrastructure like roads, railway lines, transmission lines, irrigation channels and mining activities in their vicinity. In the Tanintharyi Region of southern Myanmar,

deforestation Deforestation or forest clearance is the removal and destruction of a forest or stand of trees from land that is then converted to non-forest use. Deforestation can involve conversion of forest land to farms, ranches, or urban use. Ab ...

coupled with mining activities and high hunting pressure threatens the tiger population. In Thailand, nine of 15 protected areas hosting tigers are isolated and fragmented, offering a low probability for dispersal between them; four of these have not harboured tigers since about 2013. In Peninsular Malaysia, of tiger habitat was cleared during 1988–2012, most of it for industrial plantations. Large-scale land acquisitions of about for commercial agriculture and timber extraction in Cambodia contributed to the fragmentation of potential tiger habitat, especially in the Eastern Plains. Inbreeding depression coupled with habitat destruction, insufficient prey resources and poaching is a threat to the small and isolated tiger population in the Changbai Mountains along the China–Russia border. In China, tigers became the target of large-scale 'anti-pest' campaigns in the early 1950s, where suitable habitats were fragmented following deforestation and resettlement of people to rural areas, who hunted tigers and prey species. Though tiger hunting was prohibited in 1977, the population continued to decline and is considered extinct in South China since 2001. COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Een jager poseert bij de huid van een geschoten tijger bij Kalitapakdoewoer TMnr 10024166

COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Een jager poseert bij de huid van een geschoten tijger bij Kalitapakdoewoer TMnr 10024166

Tiger populations in India have been targeted by poachers since the 1990s and were extirpated in two tiger reserves in 2005 and 2009. Between March 2017 and January 2020, 630 activities of hunters using Trapping#Snares, snares, drift nets, hunting platforms and hunting dogs were discovered in a reserve forest of about in southern Myanmar. Nam Et-Phou Louey National Park was considered the last important site for the tiger in Laos, but it has not been recorded there at least since 2013; this population likely fell victim to indiscriminate snaring. Anti-poaching units in Sumatra's Kerinci Seblat National Park, Kerinci Seblat landscape removed 362 tiger snare traps and seized 91 tiger skins during 2005–2016; annual poaching rates increased with rising skin prices. Poaching is also the main threat to the tiger population in far eastern Russia, where

logging Logging is the process of cutting, processing, and moving trees to a location for transport. It may include skidder, skidding, on-site processing, and loading of trees or trunk (botany), logs onto logging truck, trucks Local people killing tigers in retaliation for attacking and preying on livestock is a threat in several tiger range countries, as this consequence of

human–wildlife conflict Human–wildlife conflict (HWC) refers to the negative interactions between humans and wild animals, with undesirable consequences both for people and their resources on the one hand, and wildlife and their habitats on the other. HWC, caused by ...

also contributes to the decline of the population.

Conservation

Internationally, the tiger is protected under CITES#Appendix I, CITES Appendix I, banning trade of live tigers and their body parts. In Russia, hunting the tiger has been banned since 1952. In Bhutan, it has been protected since 1969 and enlisted as totally protected since 1995. Since 1972, it has been afforded the highest protection level under India's Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972. In Nepal and Bangladesh, it has been protected since 1973. Since 1976, it has been totally protected under Malaysia's Protection of Wild Life Act, and the country's Wildlife Conservation Act enacted in 2010 increased punishments for wildlife-related crimes. In Indonesia, it has been protected since 1990. In China, the trade in tiger body parts was banned in 1993. The Thai Wildlife Preservation and Protection Act was enacted in 2019 to combat poaching and trading of body parts. In 1973, the National Tiger Conservation Authority and Project Tiger were founded in India to gain public support for tiger conservation. Since then, 53 Tiger reserves of India, tiger reserves covering an area of have been established in the country up to 2022. These efforts contributed to the recovery of India's tiger population between 2006 and 2018 so that it occurs in an area of about . Myanmar's national tiger conservation strategy developed in 2003 comprises management tasks such as restoration of degraded habitats, increasing the extent of protected areas and wildlife corridors, protecting tiger prey species, thwarting tiger killing and illegal trade of its body parts and promoting public awareness through wildlife education programmes. Bhutan's first Tiger Action Plan implemented during 2006–2015 revolved around habitat conservation, human–wildlife conflict management, education and awareness; the second Action Plan aimed at increasing the country's tiger population by 20% until 2023 compared to 2015. In 2009, the Bangladesh Tiger Action Plan was initiated to stabilise the country's tiger population, maintain habitat and a sufficient prey base, improve law enforcement and foster cooperation between governmental agencies responsible for tiger conservation. The Thailand Tiger Action Plan ratified in 2010 envisioned increasing the country's tiger populations by 50% in the Western Forest Complex and Dong Phayayen–Khao Yai Forest Complex and reestablish populations in three potential landscapes until 2022. The Indonesian National Tiger Recovery Program ratified in 2010 aimed at increasing the Sumatran tiger population by 2022. The third strategic and action plan for the conservation of the Sumatran tiger for the years 2020–2030 revolves around strengthening management of small tiger population units of less than 20 mature individuals and connectivity between 13 forest patches in North Sumatra and West Sumatra provinces. Wild Sumatran tiger

Increases in anti-poaching patrol efforts in four Russian protected areas during 2011–2014 contributed to reducing poaching, stabilising the tiger population and improving protection of ungulate populations. Poaching and trafficking were declared to be moderate and serious crimes in 2019. Anti-poaching operations were also established in Nepal in 2010, with increased cooperation and intelligence sharing between agencies. These policies have led to many years of "zero poaching" and the country's tiger population has doubled in a decade. Anti-poaching patrols in the large core area of Taman Negara lead to a decrease of poaching frequency from 34 detected incidents in 2015–2016 to 20 incidents during 2018–2019; the arrest of seven poaching teams and removal of snares facilitated the survival of three resident female tigers and at least 11 cubs. Army and police officers are deployed for patrolling together with staff of protected areas in Malaysia. Wildlife corridors are important conservation measures as they facilitate tiger populations to connect between protected areas; tigers use at least nine corridors that were established in the Terai Arc Landscape and Sivalik Hills in both Nepal and India. Corridors in forested areas with low human encroachment are highly suitable. In West Sumatra, 12 wildlife corridors were identified as high priority for mitigating human–wildlife conflicts. In 2019, China and Russia signed a memorandum of understanding for transboundary cooperation between two protected areas, Northeast China Tiger and Leopard National Park and Land of the Leopard National Park, that includes the creation of wildlife corridors and bilateral monitoring and patrolling along the Sino-Russian border. Rescued and Wildlife rehabilitation, rehabilitated problem tigers and orphaned tiger cubs have been released into the wild and monitored in India, Sumatra and Russia. In Kazakhstan, ecological restoration, habitat restoration and Species reintroduction, reintroduction of prey species in :kk:Іле-Балқаш (резерват), Ile-Balkash Nature Reserve have progressed and tiger reintroduction is planned for 2025. Reintroduction of tigers is considered possible in eastern Cambodia, once management of protected areas is improved and forest loss stabilized. South China tigers are kept and bred in Chinese zoos, with plans to reintroduce their offspring into remote protected areas. Coordinated breeding programs among zoos have led to enough genetic diversity in tigers to act as "insurance against extinction in the wild".

Relationship with humans

Hunting

Tigers have been hunted by humans for millennia, as indicated by a painting on the Bhimbetka rock shelters in India that is dated to 5,000–6,000 years ago. They were hunted throughout their range in Asia, chased on horseback, elephant-back or even with sled dogs and killed with spears and later firearms. Such hunts were conducted both by Asian governments and empires like the Mughal Empire, as well as European colonists. Tigers were often hunted as trophy hunting, trophies and because of their perceived danger. An estimated 80,000 tigers were killed between 1875 and 1925.

Attacks

In most areas, tigers avoid humans, but attacks are a risk wherever people coexist with them. Dangerous encounters are more likely to occur in Edge effects, edge habitats between wild and agricultural areas.Nyhus, P. J. & Tilson, R. (2010). "''Panthera tigris'' vs ''Homo sapiens'': Conflict, coexistence, or extinction?" in Most attacks on humans are defensive, including protection of young; however, tigers do sometimes see people as prey. Man-eating animal#Tigers, Man-eating tigers tend to be old and disabled. Tigers driven from their home ranges are also at risk of turning to man-eating. At the beginning of the 20th century, the Champawat Tiger was responsible for over 430 human deaths in Nepal and India before she was shot by Jim Corbett. This tigress suffered from broken teeth and was unable to kill normal prey. Modern authors speculate that sustaining on meagre human flesh forced the cat to kill more and more. Tiger attacks were particularly high in Singapore during the mid-19th century, when plantations expanded into the tiger's habitat. In the 1840s, the number of deaths in the area ranged from 200 to 300 annually. Tiger attacks in the Sundarbans caused 1,396 human deaths in the period 1935–2006 according to official records of the Forest Department (Bangladesh), Bangladesh Forest Department. Victims of these attacks are local villagers who enter the tiger's domain to collect resources like wood and honey. Fishermen have been particularly common targets. Methods to counter tiger attacks have included face masks worn backwards, protective clothes, sticks and carefully stationed electric dummies.

Captivity

Tigers have been kept in captivity since ancient times. In ancient Rome, tigers were displayed in amphitheatres; they were slaughtered in venatio hunts and used to Damnatio ad bestias, kill criminals. The Mongol ruler Kublai Khan is reported to have kept tigers in the 13th century. Starting in the Middle Ages, tigers were being kept in European menageries. Tigers and other exotic animals were mainly used for the entertainment of elites but from the 19th century onward, they were exhibited more to the public. Tigers were particularly big attractions and their captive population soared. In 2020, there were over 8,000 captive tigers in Asia, over 5,000 in the US and no less than 850 in Europe. There are more tigers in captivity than in the wild. Captive tigers may display Stereotypy (non-human), stereotypical behaviours such as pacing or inactivity. Modern zoos are able to reduce such behaviours with exhibits designed so the animals can move between separate but connected enclosures. Enrichment items are also important for the cat's welfare and the stimulation of its natural behaviours. Tigers have played prominent roles in

circus A circus is a company of performers who put on diverse entertainment shows that may include clowns, acrobats, trained animals, trapeze acts, musicians, dancers, hoopers, tightrope walkers, jugglers, magicians, ventriloquists, and unicy ...

es and other live performances. Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus, Ringling Bros included many tiger tamers in the 20th century including Mabel Stark, who became a big draw and had a long career. She was well known for being able to control the tigers despite being a small woman; using "manly" tools like whips and guns. Another trainer was Clyde Beatty, who used chairs, whips and guns to provoke tigers and other beasts into acting fierce and allowed him to appear courageous. He would perform with as many as 40 tigers and lions in one act. From the 1960s onward, trainers like Gunther Gebel-Williams would use gentler methods to control their animals. Sara Houcke was dubbed "the Tiger Whisperer" as she trained the cats to obey her by whispering to them. Siegfried & Roy became famous for performing with white tigers in Las Vegas. The act ended in 2003 when a tiger attacked Roy during a performance. In 2009, tigers were the most traded circus animals. The use of tigers and other animals in shows eventually declined in many countries due to pressure from animal rights groups and greater desires from the public to see them in more natural settings. Several countries restrict or ban such acts. Tigers have become popular in the exotic pet trade, particularly in the United States where only 6% of the captive tiger population in 2020 were being housed in zoos and other facilities approved by the Association of Zoos and Aquariums. Private collectors are thought to be ill-equipped to provide proper care for tigers, which compromises their welfare. They can also threaten public safety by allowing people to interact with them. The keeping of tigers and other big cats by private people was banned in the US in 2022. Most countries in the European Union have banned breeding and keeping tigers outside of licensed zoos and rescue centres, but some still allow private holdings.

Cultural significance

The tiger is among the most famous of the

charismatic megafauna Charismatic megafauna are animal species that are large—in the category that they represent—with symbolic value or widespread popular appeal, and are often used by environmental activists to gain public support for environmentalist goals. In ...

. Kailash Sankhala has called it "a rare combination of courage, ferocity and brilliant colour", while Candy d'Sa calls it "fierce and commanding on the outside, but noble and discerning on the inside". In a 2004 online poll involving more than 50,000 people from 73 countries, the tiger was voted the world's favourite animal with 21% of the vote, narrowly beating the dog. Similarly, a 2018 study found the tiger to be the most popular wild animal based on surveys, as well as appearances on websites of major zoos and posters of some animated movies. While the lion represented royalty and power in Western culture, the tiger played such a role in various Culture of Asia, Asian cultures. In ancient China, the tiger was seen as the "king of the forest" and symbolised the power of the Emperor of China, emperor. In Chinese astrology, the tiger is the third out of 12 symbols in the Chinese zodiac and controls the period between 15:00 and 17:00 o'clock in the afternoon. The Tiger (zodiac), Year of the Tiger is thought to bring "dramatic and extreme events". The White Tiger (mythology), White Tiger is one of the Four Symbols of the Chinese constellations, representing the west along with the Yin and yang, yin and the season of autumn. It is the counterpart to the Azure Dragon, which conversely symbolises the east, yang and springtime. The tiger is one of the animals displayed on the Pashupati seal of the Indus Valley Civilisation. The big cat was depicted on seals and coins during the Chola dynasty of southern India, as it was the official emblem.Thapar, R. "In Times Past" in Durga Mahisasuramardini

Tigers have had religious and folkloric significance. In Buddhism, the tiger, monkey and deer are the Three Senseless Creatures, with the tiger symbolising anger. In Hinduism, the tiger is the Vahana, vehicle of Durga, the goddess of feminine power and peace, whom the gods created to fight demons. Similarly, in the Greco-Roman world, the tiger was depicted being ridden by the god Dionysus. In Korean mythology, tigers are messengers of the Mountain Gods. In both Chinese culture, Chinese and Korean culture, tigers are seen as protectors against evil spirits and their image was used to decorate homes, tombs and articles of clothing. In the folklore of Malaysia and Indonesia, "tiger shamans" heal the sick by invoking the big cat. People turning into tigers and the inverse has also been widespread; in particular Werecat#Asia, weretigers are people who could change into tigers and back again. The Mnong people of Indochina believed that tigers could shapeshift into humans. Among some indigenous peoples of Siberia, it was believed that men would seduce women by transforming into tigers. William Blake's 1794 poem "The Tyger" portrays the animal as the duality of beauty and ferocity. It is the sister poem to "The Lamb (poem), The Lamb" in Blake's ''Songs of Innocence and of Experience'' and he ponders how God could create such different creatures. The tiger is featured in the mediaeval Chinese novel ''Water Margin'', where the cat battles and is slain by the bandit Wu Song, while the tiger Shere Khan in Rudyard Kipling's ''The Jungle Book'' (1894) is the mortal enemy of the human protagonist Mowgli. Friendly tame tigers have also existed in culture, notably Tigger, the Winnie-the-Pooh character and Tony the Tiger, the Kellogg's cereal mascot.

References

Bibliography

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External links

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