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The Throne of Maximian (or Maximianus) is a ''
cathedra A ''cathedra'' is the throne of a bishop in the early Christian  basilica. When used with this meaning, it may also be called the bishop's throne. With time, the related term ''cathedral'' became synonymous with the "seat", or principa ...
'' (episcopal
throne A throne is the seat of state of a potentate or dignitary, especially the seat occupied by a sovereign (or viceroy A viceroy () is an official who reigns over a polity in the name of and as the representative of the monarch of the territory ...
) that was made for Archbishop Maximianus of Ravenna and is now on display at the Archiepiscopal Museum, Ravenna. It is generally agreed that the throne was carved in the Greek East of the
Byzantine Empire The Byzantine Empire, also known as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the Roman Empire centred on Constantinople during late antiquity and the Middle Ages. Having survived History of the Roman Empire, the events that caused the ...
and shipped to
Ravenna Ravenna ( ; , also ; ) is the capital city of the Province of Ravenna, in the Emilia-Romagna region of Northern Italy. It was the capital city of the Western Roman Empire during the 5th century until its Fall of Rome, collapse in 476, after which ...
, but there has long been scholarly debate over whether it was made in
Constantinople Constantinople (#Names of Constantinople, see other names) was a historical city located on the Bosporus that served as the capital of the Roman Empire, Roman, Byzantine Empire, Byzantine, Latin Empire, Latin, and Ottoman Empire, Ottoman empire ...
or
Alexandria Alexandria ( ; ) is the List of cities and towns in Egypt#Largest cities, second largest city in Egypt and the List of coastal settlements of the Mediterranean Sea, largest city on the Mediterranean coast. It lies at the western edge of the Nile ...
. The style of the throne is a mixture of
Early Christian art Early Christian art and architecture (or Paleochristian art) is the art produced by Christians, or under Christian patronage, from the earliest period of Christianity to, depending on the definition, sometime between 260 and 525. In practice, ide ...
and that of the First Golden Age of
Byzantine art Byzantine art comprises the body of artistic products of the Eastern Roman Empire, as well as the nations and states that inherited culturally from the empire. Though the empire itself emerged from the decline of Rome, decline of western Rome and ...
. It is made of carved ivory panels, with frames of winding vines and grapevines, on a wooden frame. The throne itself is large with a high semi-circular back and may have held a
jewelled cross A (Latin language, Latin for jewelled cross) is a form of Christian cross, cross typical of Early Christian art and architecture, Early Christian and Early Medieval art, where the cross, or at least its front side, is principally decorated with ...
or
Gospel book A Gospel Book, Evangelion, or Book of the Gospels ( Greek: , ) is a codex or bound volume containing one or more of the four Gospels of the Christian New Testament – normally all four – centering on the life of Jesus of Nazareth and the roo ...
for some of the time. The ivory carvings are done in
relief Relief is a sculpture, sculptural method in which the sculpted pieces remain attached to a solid background of the same material. The term ''wikt:relief, relief'' is from the Latin verb , to raise (). To create a sculpture in relief is to give ...
and the panels depict important biblical figures. The back of the throne shows scenes of the Life of Christ, the sides include scenes of the Story of
Joseph Joseph is a common male name, derived from the Hebrew (). "Joseph" is used, along with " Josef", mostly in English, French and partially German languages. This spelling is also found as a variant in the languages of the modern-day Nordic count ...
from the
Book of Genesis The Book of Genesis (from Greek language, Greek ; ; ) is the first book of the Hebrew Bible and the Christian Old Testament. Its Hebrew name is the same as its incipit, first word, (In the beginning (phrase), 'In the beginning'). Genesis purpor ...
, and on the front of the throne are the
Four evangelists In Christian tradition, the Four Evangelists are Matthew the Apostle, Matthew, Mark the Evangelist, Mark, Luke the Evangelist, Luke, and John the Evangelist, John, the authors attributed with the creation of the four canonical Gospel accounts ...
around
John the Baptist John the Baptist ( – ) was a Jewish preacher active in the area of the Jordan River in the early first century AD. He is also known as Saint John the Forerunner in Eastern Orthodoxy and Oriental Orthodoxy, John the Immerser in some Baptist ...
, who is holding a medallion with the
Lamb of God Lamb of God (; , ) is a Names and titles of Jesus in the New Testament, title for Jesus that appears in the Gospel of John. It appears at wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#1:29, John 1:29, where John the Baptist sees Jesus and exclaims, " ...
and Maximian's name above him.


Historical context

Maximian was "a poor
deacon A deacon is a member of the diaconate, an office in Christian churches that is generally associated with service of some kind, but which varies among theological and denominational traditions. Major Christian denominations, such as the Cathol ...
of Pola who rose to a high position through his political adroitness" as a protégé of
Justinian I Justinian I (, ; 48214 November 565), also known as Justinian the Great, was Roman emperor from 527 to 565. His reign was marked by the ambitious but only partly realized ''renovatio imperii'', or "restoration of the Empire". This ambition was ...
. He had not been wanted as archbishop by the people of Ravenna, but "by shrewd maneuvres he overcame their opposition, and won their respect by his discretion, generosity, and great enterprises of church building and decoration". He is shown, and named in a large '' titulus'', in the famous mosaic in the
Basilica of San Vitale The Basilica of San Vitale is a late antique church in Ravenna, Italy. The sixth-century church is an important surviving example of early Byzantine art and architecture, and its mosaics in particular are some of the most-studied works in Byzan ...
of Justinian surrounded by his ministers and bodyguards (matched by a panel for the Empress). His throne can be dated to about 545–553, and is believed to have been carved in Constantinople, and shipped to Ravenna. It was probably commissioned by Justinian as a gift for Maximianus for becoming the new archbishop and to encourage and strengthen his authority because he was not always popular. The throne portrays Justinian's presence in Ravenna, which had been the western capital of the Roman Empire and the Byzantine Empire. Maximian may well have acted as regent for the Emperor in the remaining Byzantine territory in Italy, and it is possible that it was intended to be left as an
empty throne The Hetoimasia, Etimasia (Greek ἑτοιμασία, "preparation"), prepared throne, Preparation of the Throne, ready throne or Throne of the Second Coming is the Christian version of the symbolic subject of the empty throne found in the art of ...
symbolizing the authority of God or the Emperor, or both. Many had also believed that the throne was not intended to be of personal use by the Archbishop, but was to be an empty throne that symbolized the imperial or divine power. The cathedra was positioned in the center of the apse in the cathedral with the benches of assisting priests on either side. The throne was also carried during religious ceremonies. The decorated back and side of the throne suggested that the throne was designed to be moved out of the apse and placed near the chancel while the bishop addressed the congregation, instead of being left stationary against the wall. The gift was also for the dedication of San Vitale; Justinian hired 6th-century Byzantine artists, who were summoned by the court to Constantinople from around the Empire, to create this piece. The style of the ivories and even the use of ivory itself suggest that the throne belongs to the School of Ivory Carving. It is also suggested, due to differing styles within the throne, that some components or even the entire throne was possibly carved in Alexandria. However, it is argued that the cult of St Menas was not just confined to Egypt, but there was a church dedicated to him in Constantinople. One argument advanced for an origin in Egypt is the local relevance of the story of Joseph, which is given such prominence, but
Meyer Schapiro Meyer Schapiro (23 September 1904 – 3 March 1996) was a Lithuanian-born American art historian who developed new art historical methodologies that incorporated an interdisciplinary approach to the study of works. An expert on early Christian, ...
demonstrates an artistic and literary tradition using Joseph, who rose to be minister to his
pharaoh Pharaoh (, ; Egyptian language, Egyptian: ''wikt:pr ꜥꜣ, pr ꜥꜣ''; Meroitic language, Meroitic: 𐦲𐦤𐦧, ; Biblical Hebrew: ''Parʿō'') was the title of the monarch of ancient Egypt from the First Dynasty of Egypt, First Dynasty ( ...
, as a symbol for the role a bishop, which at this period typically involved a considerable role in civil government.


Technical analysis

Ivory carving was used in many luxury Byzantine sculptures including
diptych A diptych (, ) is any object with two flat plates which form a pair, often attached by a hinge. For example, the standard notebook and school exercise book of the ancient world was a diptych consisting of a pair of such plates that contained a ...
s such as that showing the
Adoration of the Magi The Adoration of the Magi or Adoration of the Kings or Visitation of the Wise Men is the name traditionally given to the subject in the Nativity of Jesus in art in which the three Magi, represented as kings, especially in the West, having fo ...
and the Barberini Diptych, representing Justinian as Holy Emperor. The throne is the largest single Late Antique work of art made of ivory, and derives attraction from its simple and proportionate lines along with its elaborate carvings. The size of the throne and clear stylistic variations between the panels suggest that it involved the work of several 6th century Byzantine artists. The technique of the panels suggests that at least two different artists of unequal skills had executed the carvings due to differing styles. Although the general style of the panels can be recognized, the panels on the front are sketchy compared to the scenes on the side and back of the chair, which are very bold and rather careless. The dimensions are 22" (0.6m) wide x 4’11" (1.5m) high. Of the panels on the back of the throne, only 16 of the 24 panels have survived or been restored. The piece is currently preserved and displayed in the Museo Arcivescovile, which also holds the Chapel of Sant’Adrea and works from the old cathedral. The Byzantine Church did not favor sculpture in the round, fearing that it would recall idols from Greek and Roman pagan religion. Thus, small carvings in relief were created and allowed. This style of carving involves carving figures that project slightly from the background rather than free standing. This creates a piece with a mixture of 2 and 3 dimensionality. The two different techniques of two different artists could be possibly explained by the pandemic plague that raged that time (c.ad.540, the Plague of Justinian). The plague spread to the Roman Empire from the East Africa through the Ivory route and the ivory workshop artists could be among early victims of the disease. The deterioration of the technique therefore could be explained by the decease of the initial principal master and the possible desire of the Emperor to finish the piece as soon as possible anyway.


Formal and stylistic analysis

The Throne of Maximianus is a key work in what has been called the "Justinianic style" of early Byzantine art. The ivory exterior of the throne is conceived as a series of framed panels, though the apparent structural roles of the sections does not entirely reflect their actual function. An unusual feature is that the depth of the relief is generally deeper in the decorative "framing" sections than in the framed scenes. The overall scheme is extremely rich, if demonstrating a certain '' horror vacui''. The artists adapted complicated patterns and designs from textiles and carvings of the Near East and conveyed them in their artworks. The framing elements of the throne are decorated with scrolling vines typical of Early Christian art, "inhabited" with animals and birds within the curling branches of vines. Many scenes carved on the Throne of Maximianus, such as the miracle of Christ and the history of Joseph, can also be found in a variety of other works, including mosaics and manuscripts. The
Four Evangelists In Christian tradition, the Four Evangelists are Matthew the Apostle, Matthew, Mark the Evangelist, Mark, Luke the Evangelist, Luke, and John the Evangelist, John, the authors attributed with the creation of the four canonical Gospel accounts ...
portrayed on the front of the throne was also a very common motif used throughout the Medieval period. The figures show a strong preference for ''
contrapposto ( 'counterpoise'), in the visual arts, is a human figure standing with most of its weight on one foot, so that its shoulders and arms twist off-axis from the hips and legs in the axial plane. First appearing in Ancient Greece in the early 5th ...
'' poses, "an inheritance from Greek art, but which here become a kind of mannerism".


Individual scenes' similarities to other work of arts

*"Scene of Joseph assured by an Angel, occurs on an ivory casket in the
Victoria and Albert Museum The Victoria and Albert Museum (abbreviated V&A) in London is the world's largest museum of applied arts, decorative arts and design, housing a permanent collection of over 2.8 million objects. It was founded in 1852 and named after Queen ...
, and on a
sarcophagus A sarcophagus (: sarcophagi or sarcophaguses) is a coffin, most commonly carved in stone, and usually displayed above ground, though it may also be buried. The word ''sarcophagus'' comes from the Greek language, Greek wikt:σάρξ, σάρξ ...
from Le Puy" *"
Annunciation The Annunciation (; ; also referred to as the Annunciation to the Blessed Virgin Mary, the Annunciation of Our Lady, or the Annunciation of the Lord; ) is, according to the Gospel of Luke, the announcement made by the archangel Gabriel to Ma ...
scene, occurs on the ivory book-covers of the Echmiadzin Gospels, and the book covers in the Bibliotheque Nationale" *"The test of the virgin by Water, occurs on the Uwaroff ivory and the fragment of the
Murano Murano is a series of islands linked by bridges in the Venetian Lagoon, northern Italy. It lies about north of Venice and measures about across with a population of just over 5,000 (2004 figures). It is famous for its glass making. It was o ...
covers in the Stroganoff Collection" *One of 26 mosaic panels in Sant’Apollinare Nuovo, Ravenna (Miracle of Loaves and Fishes) *Church of San Vitale (4 Evangelists) *Dome Mosaic in Battistero Neoniano in Ravenna (baptist of Christ)


Iconographical analysis

The Throne of Maximianus symbolizes a seat of authority and status. A throne is recognized as a seat for someone with power in the Medieval times. The chair not only signifies the resting of the body, but also the focusing of the mind. In a setting like a
Cathedral A cathedral is a church (building), church that contains the of a bishop, thus serving as the central church of a diocese, Annual conferences within Methodism, conference, or episcopate. Churches with the function of "cathedral" are usually s ...
, the chair is given a role of reflecting the religious and spiritual attitudes of the attendants of the church. A cathedra is the official seat of a bishop. On the Throne of Maximianus, there are scenes of the Old and New Testament depicting the Story of Joseph and the Life of Christ. The scenes of the New Testament hold a peculiar resemblance to Egyptian examples of the New Testaments and they are continued in the seventh century on Coptic monuments.


Front of the seat

At the front of the seat, there are a total of five panels. Four of the panels portray the Evangelists holding their Gospel books. The last panel illustrates John the Baptist, holding his emblem of the lamb. This is a very common theme that is depicted in many manuscripts and mosaics. The designs of the throne's front include the vine-stem design, which was heavily used in Early Christian art. The artists that created the throne incorporated animals and birds within the vines. On the lower border of the front of the seat contains two lion guards guarding the vase from which the vines emerge. On the top border, there are a pair of peacocks surrounding the monogram of Archbishop Maximianus. The peacocks symbolize birds of immortality.


Side of the seat

On the side of the throne, there are 10 panels representing the events from the Story of Joseph in the
Book of Genesis The Book of Genesis (from Greek language, Greek ; ; ) is the first book of the Hebrew Bible and the Christian Old Testament. Its Hebrew name is the same as its incipit, first word, (In the beginning (phrase), 'In the beginning'). Genesis purpor ...
. The artistic style of these scenes is a Sixth-century style, which can be distinguished by the sketchiness of the carving. Scenes of the Life of Joseph, the choice of costumes, decoration and technique are consistently analogous to the Christian art of Egypt.


Back of the seat

The back of the throne consisted of 24 panels depicting the New Testament and more specifically, the Life of Christ and apocryphal scenes from the
Life of the Virgin The Life of the Virgin, showing narrative scenes from the life of Mary, the mother of Jesus, is a common subject for pictorial cycles in Christian art, often complementing, or forming part of, a cycle on the Life of Christ. In both cases the ...
.


Individual scenes

*The Alexandrian-Coptic version of the
nativity of Christ The Nativity or birth of Jesus Christ is found in the biblical gospels of Matthew and Luke. The two accounts agree that Jesus was born in Bethlehem, Palestine, in Roman-controlled Judea, that his mother, Mary, was engaged to a man named J ...
, depicted on the Throne of Maximian, shows the Virgin lying on a mattress, which is more of an Oriental theme. While the Western Nativities have the Virgin seated in a chair. *The scene of Annunciation depicts the Virgin sitting to the left on a wicker chair spinning the purple garment for the temple. Other than the examples stated from above, this type of scene occurs only on monuments of the Coptic origin. *The scene of the Story of Bethlehem, Joseph helping the pregnant Virgin onto the animal, which is led by an angel, is very rare of a scene in Early Christian art. This type of scene is most likely made in Alexandria whence it became a characteristic type in
Coptic art Coptic art is the Christianity, Christian art of the Byzantine empire, Byzantine-Roman Egypt, Greco-Roman Egypt and of Coptic Orthodox Church, Coptic Christian Churches. Coptic art is best known for its wall-paintings, textiles, illuminated ma ...
.


Footnotes


References

*Baldwin, Smith E. . "The Alexandrian Origin of the Chair of Maximianus."American Journal of Archaeology 21, no. 1 (1917): 22-37. *Farber, Allen. "San Vitale." Home Page. http://employees.oneonta.edu/farberas/arth/arth212/san_vitale.html (accessed March 15, 2012). *Hassett, Maurice. "Cathedra." The Catholic Encyclopedia 3 (1908). http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03437a.htm (accessed March 15, 2012). *Hayes, Holly. "Photo: Miracle of Loaves and Fishes, Sant'Apollinare Nuovo, Ravenna." Sacred Sites at Sacred Destinations - Explore sacred sites, religious sites, sacred places. http://www.sacred-destinations.com/italy/ravenna-sant-apollinare-nuovo-photos/slides/xti_6832p.htm (accessed March 15, 2012). *Hayes, Holly. "Photo: Dome Mosaic: Baptism of Christ, Neonian Baptistery, Ravenna." Sacred Sites at Sacred Destinations - Explore sacred sites, religious sites, sacred places. http://www.sacred-destinations.com/italy/ravenna-battistero-neoniano-photos/slides/xti_7123p.htm (accessed March 15, 2012). *Janson, H. W., and Anthony F. Janson.History of art: the Western tradition. Rev. 6th ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson/Prentice-Hall, 2004. *Janson, H. W., and Penelope J. E. Davies. Janson's history of art the western tradition. 7th ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2007. * Kitzinger, Ernst, ''Byzantine art in the making: main lines of stylistic development in Mediterranean art, 3rd-7th century'', 1977, Faber & Faber, (US: Cambridge UP, 1977) *Lowden, John. Early Christian & Byzantine art. London: Phaidon, 19971998. *Mango, Marlia Mundell. Byzantine trade, 4th-12th centuries: the archaeology of local, regional and international exchange : papers of the thirty-eighth Spring Symposium of Byzantine Studies, St John's College, University of Oxford, March 2004. Farnham, Surrey, England: Ashgate Pub., 2009. *Milburn, Robert. Early Christian art and architecture. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991. *Scholastic.com, zantine (330-1453) , Scholastic ART , . "Byzantine (330-1453) , Scholastic ART , Scholastic.com." Scholastic , Children's Books and Book Club , Scholastic.com. http://www.scholastic.com/browse/article.jsp?id=3753901 (accessed March 15, 2012). * Schapiro, Meyer, "The Joseph Scenes on the Maximianus Throne", in ''Selected Papers, volume 3, Late Antique, Early Christian and Mediaeval Art'', 1980, Chatto & Windus, London, , also on JSTOR from the ''Gazette des Beaux-Arts'', 1952 *Thomas, Paul. "Poetics of Thresholds Paper." Visiblespace. http://www.visiblespace.com/poetics/paper/papertwo.html (accessed March 15, 2012). {{commons category, Maximian chair 6th-century sculptures Individual thrones Byzantine ivory Early Christian art Ravenna