Thomas Ostrom Enders
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Thomas Ostrom Enders (November 28, 1931 – March 17, 1996) was an
American American(s) may refer to: * American, something of, from, or related to the United States of America, commonly known as the "United States" or "America" ** Americans, citizens and nationals of the United States of America ** American ancestry, p ...
diplomat A diplomat (from ; romanization, romanized ''diploma'') is a person appointed by a state (polity), state, International organization, intergovernmental, or Non-governmental organization, nongovernmental institution to conduct diplomacy with one ...
. His father, Ostrom Enders, was
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of Hartford National Bank, and his uncle,
John Franklin Enders John Franklin Enders (February 10, 1897 – September 8, 1985) was an American biomedical scientist and Nobel Laureate. Enders has been called "The Father of Modern Vaccines." Life and education Enders was born in West Hartford, Connecticut on Fe ...
, was the 1954
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in
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. In 1976,
US President The president of the United States (POTUS) is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president directs the executive branch of the federal government and is the commander-in-chief of the United States Armed For ...
Gerald Ford Gerald Rudolph Ford Jr. (born Leslie Lynch King Jr.; July 14, 1913December 26, 2006) was the 38th president of the United States, serving from 1974 to 1977. A member of the Republican Party (United States), Republican Party, Ford assumed the p ...
nominated Enders as the
United States Ambassador to Canada This is a list of ambassadors of the United States to Canada.U.S. ...
. Enders held this post from February 17, 1976, to December 14, 1979. Between 1979 and 1981, he was the
United States Ambassador to the European Communities This is a list of United States ambassadors to the European Union. The formal title of this position is Representative of the United States of America to the European Union (prior to May 9, 1994: European Communities), with the rank and status o ...
. President
Ronald Reagan Ronald Wilson Reagan (February 6, 1911 – June 5, 2004) was an American politician and actor who served as the 40th president of the United States from 1981 to 1989. He was a member of the Republican Party (United States), Republican Party a ...
nominated Enders as
Assistant Secretary of State for Inter-American Affairs The Assistant Secretary of State for Western Hemisphere Affairs is the head of the Bureau of Western Hemisphere Affairs within the United States Department of State, the foreign affairs department of the United States federal government. The As ...
. Enders held office from June 23, 1981, to June 27, 1983. Reagan then named Enders to be the
US Ambassador to Spain The most recent ambassador was Julissa Reynoso Pantaleón, she was sworn in by Vice President Kamala Harris on January 7, 2022, and presented her credentials on February 2, 2022. This is a list of United States ambassadors to Spain from 1779 ...
, with Enders presenting his credentials to the Spanish government on September 15, 1983, and representing the
U.S. The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 contiguous ...
in
Spain Spain, or the Kingdom of Spain, is a country in Southern Europe, Southern and Western Europe with territories in North Africa. Featuring the Punta de Tarifa, southernmost point of continental Europe, it is the largest country in Southern Eur ...
until July 6, 1986. Enders retired in 1986. He died in
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on March 17, 1996. He is buried in
Waterford, Connecticut Waterford is a town in New London County, Connecticut, New London County, Connecticut, United States. It is named after Waterford, Ireland. The town is part of the Southeastern Connecticut Planning Region, Connecticut, Southeastern Connecticut ...
.


Background and early life

Enders was born on November 28, 1931, in
Hartford, Connecticut Hartford is the List of capitals in the United States, capital city of the U.S. state of Connecticut. The city, located in Hartford County, Connecticut, Hartford County, had a population of 121,054 as of the 2020 United States census, 2020 ce ...
. Enders was a member of the class of 1949 of Phillips Exeter Academy. He then was educated at
Yale University Yale University is a Private university, private Ivy League research university in New Haven, Connecticut, United States. Founded in 1701, Yale is the List of Colonial Colleges, third-oldest institution of higher education in the United Stat ...
, where he was a member of the
Scroll and Key The Scroll and Key Society is a Collegiate secret societies in North America, secret society, founded in 1842 at Yale University, in New Haven, Connecticut. It is one of the oldest Collegiate secret societies in North America#Yale University, Ya ...
society, receiving a
B.A. A Bachelor of Arts (abbreviated B.A., BA, A.B. or AB; from the Latin ', ', or ') is the holder of a bachelor's degree awarded for an undergraduate program in the liberal arts, or, in some cases, other disciplines. A Bachelor of Arts degree ...
in 1953. He received the Alpheus Henry Snow Prize awarded to the senior "who through the combination of intellectual achievement, character, and personality, shall be adjudged by the faculty to have done most for Yale by inspiring classmates with an admiration for scholarship" and the Warren Memorial High Scholarship Prize for the "highest academic rank for four years among B.A. candidates." He attended the
University of Paris The University of Paris (), known Metonymy, metonymically as the Sorbonne (), was the leading university in Paris, France, from 1150 to 1970, except for 1793–1806 during the French Revolution. Emerging around 1150 as a corporation associated wit ...
, receiving a
M.A. A Master of Arts ( or ''Artium Magister''; abbreviated MA or AM) is the holder of a master's degree awarded by universities in many countries. The degree is usually contrasted with that of Master of Science. Those admitted to the degree have ...
in 1955 and
Harvard University Harvard University is a Private university, private Ivy League research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States. Founded in 1636 and named for its first benefactor, the History of the Puritans in North America, Puritan clergyma ...
, receiving a
M.A. A Master of Arts ( or ''Artium Magister''; abbreviated MA or AM) is the holder of a master's degree awarded by universities in many countries. The degree is usually contrasted with that of Master of Science. Those admitted to the degree have ...
in 1957.


Diplomatic career

In 1958, Enders joined the
United States Foreign Service The United States Foreign Service is the primary personnel system used by the diplomatic service of the United States federal government, under the aegis of the United States Department of State. It consists of over 13,000 professionals carr ...
as an intelligence research specialist. From 1960 to 1963, he was a visa officer and then an economic officer in
Stockholm Stockholm (; ) is the Capital city, capital and List of urban areas in Sweden by population, most populous city of Sweden, as well as the List of urban areas in the Nordic countries, largest urban area in the Nordic countries. Approximately ...
. From 1963, he was supervisory international economist at the Bureau of European Affairs. In 1966, he was a special assistant in the Office of the
Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs The under secretary of state for political affairs is currently the fourth-ranking position in the United States Department of State, after the United States Secretary of State, secretary, the United States Deputy Secretary of State, deputy secre ...
. In 1968, he became Deputy Assistant Secretary of State for International Monetary Affairs. From 1969, he was deputy
chief of mission In diplomatic usage, head of mission (HOM) or chief of mission (COM) from the French "chef de mission diplomatique" (CMD) is the head of a diplomatic representation, such as an ambassador, high commissioner, nuncio, chargé d'affaires, permanen ...
in
Belgrade Belgrade is the Capital city, capital and List of cities in Serbia, largest city of Serbia. It is located at the confluence of the Sava and Danube rivers and at the crossroads of the Pannonian Basin, Pannonian Plain and the Balkan Peninsula. T ...
. From 1971 to 1973, he held the same position in
Phnom Penh Phnom Penh is the Capital city, capital and List of cities and towns in Cambodia, most populous city of Cambodia. It has been the national capital since 1865 and has grown to become the nation's primate city and its political, economic, industr ...
. On 27 September 1972 a booby-trap exploded in the car he was using. He escaped injury, but two others were killed. In 1974, Enders became Assistant Under Secretary of State for Economic and Business Affairs.


Assistant Under Secretary of State for Economic and Business Affairs, 1973–1976

Henry Kissinger Henry Alfred Kissinger (May 27, 1923 – November 29, 2023) was an American diplomat and political scientist who served as the 56th United States secretary of state from 1973 to 1977 and the 7th National Security Advisor (United States), natio ...
appointed Enders to the role of
Assistant Secretary of State for Economic and Business Affairs The Assistant Secretary of State for Economic and Business Affairs is an office in the United States Department of State responsible for managing the Bureau of Economic and Business Affairs. It was known as the Assistant Secretary of State for Ec ...
in 1973. Ender's job was to corral the allies into a common approach to the energy crisis and prevent bilateralism from gaining the upper hand. The US spearheaded the International Energy Program (IEP) Agreement, underpinned by the
International Energy Agency The International Energy Agency (IEA) is a Paris-based autonomous intergovernmental organization, established in 1974, that provides policy recommendations, analysis and data on the global energy sector. The 31 member countries and 13 associatio ...
(IEA), which still exists today as a counterweight to
OPEC The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC ) is an organization enabling the co-operation of leading oil-producing and oil-dependent countries in order to collectively influence the global oil market and maximize Profit (eco ...
. To make the US appear more credible on the IEA, the 94th US Congress enacted the
Energy Policy and Conservation Act The Energy Policy and Conservation Act of 1975 (EPCA) () is a United States Act of Congress that responded to the 1973 oil crisis by creating a comprehensive approach to federal energy policy. The primary goals of EPCA are to increase energy p ...
in 1975. It aimed to promote conservation, renewable and alternative energy resources.
Canada Canada is a country in North America. Its Provinces and territories of Canada, ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, making it the world's List of coun ...
was a key piece of the energy supply puzzle, lying in between the lower 48 states and the Alaskan North Slope. The US Government had chosen the Trans-Alaskan Pipeline System (TAPS) over the more efficient Trans-Canadian route, to avoid relying on Canada for such a vital resource. TAPS routed the oil pipeline from
Prudhoe Bay Prudhoe Bay is a town located in North Slope Borough in the U.S. state of Alaska. As of the 2020 census, the population of the CDP was 1,310 people, down from 2,174 residents in the 2010 census, and up from just 5 residents in 2000; however ...
to the Port of Valdez, then requiring transport via tanker to west coast ports. The
Haida Nation The Council of the Haida Nation (CHN; ) is the elected government of the Haida people, the Indigenous occupants of the Haida Gwaii archipelago in the Canadian province of British Columbia. The council consists of a president and vice-president el ...
, whose homeland is the Haida Gwaii Archipelago, protested that the passage of massively laden oil tankers would create risks. In the interest of preserving the lands of the Haida, Enders imposed a 100-mile tanker exclusion zone from Cape St John, at least for a period of time. Enders was also an enthusiastic supporter of Canada's development of its own energy resources. Enders felt that it made more sense to use the Alberta tar sands, for example, to serve proximate markets in the lower 48 than distant markets in Central and Eastern Canada. This preference for North-South trade where manifestly more efficient became a common theme of his approach on coal and electricity, dovetailing with the economic interests of provincial premiers.


U.S. Ambassador to Canada, 1976–1979

As ambassador to Canada, Enders set the stage for the historic CUSFTA. Introducing himself in an interview with Bruce Philips on CTV on 11 April 1976, Enders said: "We think that the Canadian American relationship is one that has a lot of opportunities as well as clearly some differences that have to be solved. I think that an activist approach to this is the word I would use about the kinds of missions that I've been given and the kind of person I expect to be here. This is necessary to ensure that we exploit those opportunities as well as try and resolve those differences so that the differences don't come to dominate the relationship." Enders decided on an extensive outreach effort of speeches focused on his 'missions': defense, energy, the environment and trade liberalization. This was a dramatic change from the historical tradition of US envoys engaging in fatuous talk about best friends, closest neighbors and undefended border". He was at times attacked for unwarranted intrusion in Canadian affairs. Intensive socializing was also part of the program. Enders and Gaetana both spoke fluent French: essential in Canada in 1976 on the eve of the victory of the Parti Quebecois. Gaetana and Enders travelled together covering extensive regions of the country. Enders stated that he travelled 50,000 miles annually across Canada. Early on in his posting, Enders addressed in a speech at the
Conference Board of Canada The Conference Board of Canada is an independent, non-profit applied-research organization based in Canada. It aims to help Canada's leaders make informed, evidence-based decisions using non-partisan and non-ideological analysis. The organiza ...
in November 1976, the "continentalism that haunts every discussion of improving Canadian-US relations". This periodic Canadian paranoia of being absorbed by the US de facto, he thought, was a natural consequence of the US being Canada's top trading partner. He responded by noting that the US had now also recognized Canada as its top trading partner, setting the stage for a partnership of equals. Enders anticipated that mutual dependence would grow under ambitious tariff liberalization. "Canada-US relations will not work well", Enders said, "if we feel we are prisoners of that interdependence, not its masters." He urged a new common practice: that every difficulty and dispute be met with consultation, inquiry, process towards a joint understanding. He urged "expansionary" solutions be found to permit a higher balance of advantage, rather than taking something away from one country for the benefit of the other. Then Under Secretary of External Affairs Allan Gotlieb, subsequently Ambassador to the US in the 1980s, said about Enders: Strengthening management of shared environments, as had been achieved since 1972 by the International Joint Commission for the Great Lakes, was a recurring aspiration for Enders. At the time, the irritants were the Garrison Diversion project on the US side and the
Saskatchewan Saskatchewan is a Provinces and territories of Canada, province in Western Canada. It is bordered on the west by Alberta, on the north by the Northwest Territories, on the east by Manitoba, to the northeast by Nunavut, and to the south by the ...
Government's plan to build a thermal generating plant on the Poplar River near the border with
Montana Montana ( ) is a landlocked U.S. state, state in the Mountain states, Mountain West subregion of the Western United States. It is bordered by Idaho to the west, North Dakota to the east, South Dakota to the southeast, Wyoming to the south, an ...
. In several speeches on environmental frictions, his message was "we must develop better ways of dealing with them to our mutual benefit and not to trade them off." Before arriving in Canada, Enders had experience in trade negotiations. He was closely involved in the Kennedy Round of trade negotiations in 1966 and 1967 as Special Assistant to Under Secretary for Political Affairs
Walt Rostow Walt Whitman Rostow (; October 7, 1916 – February 13, 2003) was an American economist, professor and political theorist who served as national security advisor to president of the United States Lyndon B. Johnson from 1966 to 1969. Rostow wor ...
. Reporting to Secretary of State
Dean Rusk David Dean Rusk (February 9, 1909December 20, 1994) was the United States secretary of state from 1961 to 1969 under presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson, the second-longest serving secretary of state after Cordell Hull from the ...
, Enders stated a "a very significant – in some ways brilliant – deal with Canada" had been reached "involving substantial cuts on $1.3–$1.4 billion on trade in each side". The Kennedy Round was the first of the multilateral trade negotiations to build multilateral tariff cuts on the basis of a series of bilateral tariff deals that were then multilateralized to all
GATT The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) is a legal agreement between many countries, whose overall purpose was to promote international trade by reducing or eliminating trade barriers such as tariffs or quotas. According to its p ...
parties. By 1977, Enders was "running around talking about
free trade Free trade is a trade policy that does not restrict imports or exports. In government, free trade is predominantly advocated by political parties that hold Economic liberalism, economically liberal positions, while economic nationalist politica ...
" in Canada. In a key speech to the Conference Board of Canada, Enders said: "You're going to ask right off what two job-short economies can do for each other in the field of trade without making their problems worse. The answer is, of course, that you can get important net job creation – and a major assist in combatting inflation – by reciprocal reduction of trade barriers…" On October 20, 1977, freer trade with the US became official Canadian policy and the third option was formally binned. Finance Minister
Jean Chrétien Joseph Jacques Jean Chrétien (; born January 11, 1934) is a retired Canadian politician, statesman, and lawyer who served as the 20th prime minister of Canada from 1993 to 2003. He served as Leader of the Liberal Party of Canada, leader of t ...
's Economic and Fiscal Statement to the House of Commons indicated: "We need lower – not higher – trade barriers here and around the world if we are to build efficient manufacturing industries and increase our productivity." Both Canada and the US were firmly focused on concluding the Tokyo Round of
multilateral trade negotiations The term multilateral trade negotiations (MTN) initially applied to negotiations between General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) member nations conducted under the auspices of the GATT and aimed at reducing tariff and nontariff trade barriers ...
(MTN) held by the GATT. The Tokyo Round was not going well, mainly because
Japan Japan is an island country in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean off the northeast coast of the Asia, Asian mainland, it is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan and extends from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea ...
and the
European Economic Community The European Economic Community (EEC) was a regional organisation created by the Treaty of Rome of 1957,Today the largely rewritten treaty continues in force as the ''Treaty on the functioning of the European Union'', as renamed by the Lisbo ...
were reluctant to cut tariffs in a period of economic recession. The US instead believed that multilateral trade liberalisation was urgently required to restart economic growth in all its major trading partners in the wake of the energy crisis. Enders publicized a US tariff offer to reduce (but not eliminate) nuisance tariffs on processed raw materials which hindered Canadian exports to the US. Enders thought an ambitious bilateral tariff cutting agreement with Canada might galvanise Japan and the European Economic Community to do the same. He also saw the multilateral route as being the only one for Canada and the US to advance in their common objective of removing trade barriers to the export of agricultural products, including distortive aid for grain exports to emerging markets. If the MTN route seemed superior to Enders, he was also keenly aware that a trade agreement might not "yield enough economic benefit to offset its political costs" and a North American energy market, would "arouse American expectations that cannot be met and stir up Canadian fears that are difficult to put to rest". ( CUSFTA and
NAFTA The North American Free Trade Agreement (, TLCAN; , ALÉNA), referred to colloquially in the Anglosphere as NAFTA, ( ) was an agreement signed by Canada, Mexico, and the United States that created a trilateral trade bloc in North America. The ...
are not common markets.)


Assistant Secretary of State for Inter-American Affairs, 1981–1983

In 1982 before a Senate committee on the
El Mozote massacre The El Mozote massacre took place both in and around the village of El Mozote, in the Morazán Department, El Salvador, on December 11 and 12, 1981, when the Salvadoran Army killed more than 811 civilians during the Salvadoran Civil War. T ...
in
El Salvador El Salvador, officially the Republic of El Salvador, is a country in Central America. It is bordered on the northeast by Honduras, on the northwest by Guatemala, and on the south by the Pacific Ocean. El Salvador's capital and largest city is S ...
, in which the
Salvadoran Army The Salvadoran Army (Spanish language, Spanish: ''Ejército Salvadoreño'') is the land branch and largest of the Armed Forces of El Salvador. History The Football War The Football War (also called The Soccer War or 100-hours War) was a ter ...
killed more than 800 civilians during the
Salvadoran Civil War The Salvadoran Civil War () was a twelve-year civil war in El Salvador that was fought between the government of El Salvador, backed by the United States, and the Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front (FMLN), a coalition of left-wing guer ...
, Enders attacked ''New York Times'' correspondent Raymond Bonner and ''Washington Post'' correspondent
Alma Guillermoprieto use both this parameter and , birth_date to display the person's date of birth, date of death, and age at death) --> , death_place = , death_cause = , body_discovered = , resting_place = , resting_place_coordinates = ...
, who had reported on the massacre. Enders stated that there had been a battle between guerrillas and the army but that "no evidence could be found to confirm that government forces systematically massacred civilians." Enders also repeated the claim that only 300 people had lived in Mozote, and it was impossible for the death toll to have reached that reported in the ''Times'' and ''Post'' stories.


U.S. Ambassador to Spain, 1983–1986

Enders was appointed Ambassador to Spain in August 1983, having been forced out of his previous position by what Secretary of State George P. Shultz described as "hard liners", led by NSC direction William "Judge" Clark and including William Casey, Ed Meese and others. Shultz described Enders as a "loyal, keenly analytic officer with a style that could irritate even those who supported him; he might be difficult, but he was a definite asset." Shultz hoped that getting Enders away from the Central American crisis would make it easier for him to deal with the hard liners, as well as reduce the heat on Enders. That proved not to be the case. Before leaving for Spain Enders chose
Jack R. Binns Jack Robert Binns (born May 13, 1933, in Oregon) was the U.S. Ambassador to Honduras from 1980 to 1981. Binns is a 1956 graduate of the United States Naval Academy. Now retired from the Foreign Service, Binns is an author and resides in Tucson, ...
, the former Ambassador to
Honduras Honduras, officially the Republic of Honduras, is a country in Central America. It is bordered to the west by Guatemala, to the southwest by El Salvador, to the southeast by Nicaragua, to the south by the Pacific Ocean at the Gulf of Fonseca, ...
with whom he had clashed (see above), as his deputy in Madrid. The principal issues concerning Enders in Spain were ensuring its continued membership in NATO, its entry into the then European Community (now EU) and the renewal of the U.S. mutual defense treaty with Spain, which provided strategically important air and naval basis for U.S. forces that would have expired in 1987. Enders quickly established excellent working relations with Socialist Party (PSOE) Prime Minister Felipe Gonzalez and King Juan Carlos, both of whom supported continued membership in NATO and the EU initiative. NATO, however, was a serious problem. The PSOE officially opposed Spanish membership, as did a substantial majority of the Spanish public. To overcome this, Gonzalez would propose a national referendum, the outcome of which was in doubt. Several months earlier Shultz had advised Enders that the President had expressed concerns about his support of U. S. foreign policy, and Shultz sought to allay his concerns. This time, however, the source was not the hard liners, but Mrs. Reagan. As a result, Enders made at least two trips to Washington for White House meetings. But they had not put the matter to rest. During the President's stay in Madrid, Enders met privately with him and left believing that the matter had been resolved. Substantively the visit cleared the air on several bi-lateral issues, including Spain's insistence that as part of the price for Spain remaining in NATO would be giving up the U.S. Air Force's Madrid Air Force Base, although the operational units could be moved elsewhere in the country. The question of Enders' loyalty resurfaced a few months later and was a continuing distraction to Shultz. He finally advised Enders that while he had full faith in his service, it seemed inevitable that he would have to leave, offering another appointment, perhaps Australia. In late 1985 the NSC staff contacted the embassy to report that Mrs. Reagan's office had request that McFarland agree to see the Countess of Romanones and inquired as to her background. Based on the embassy's information, McFarland declined the honor. A second, more pointed request caused him to agree to see her. Her purpose, it turned out, was to ask McFarland to put her name forward as a replacement for Enders. These events triggered an inquiry which revealed that for the past several years the countess had been paying a columnist at ABC, the leading Madrid right-wing newspaper, to write articles highlighting Enders' good relations with the Gonzalez government and implying that he did not support the administration's foreign policy. These articles were clipped and, with translations, forwarded to friends of the countess in New York who then passed them to Mrs. Reagan's office. While the Countess was never considered for the post to which she aspired, her efforts contributed greatly to his replacement in July 1986. During Enders' final months the NATO referendum produced a solid majority in favor of continued NATO membership, a great victory for Gonzalez, and preliminary talks on the renewal of the U.S. bases agreement. It was finally approved in December 1988 and included the closure of USAF involvement in the Madrid Air Force Base (
Torrejón Air Base Torrejón Air Base (Base Aérea de Torrejón de Ardoz) is both a major Spanish Air and Space Force base and the co-located Madrid–Torrejón Airport, a secondary civilian airport for the city and metropolitan area of Madrid, east-northeast of t ...
).


Enders Endowment

The Enders Endowment funds a graduate fellowship program as well as hosts a lecture series annually in Washington, D.C., for US–Canadian relations. The Thomas and Gaetana Enders Fellowship has sought, in the past 15 years, to contribute to their legacy. It is a partnership with ACSUS and SAIS to advance academic research and fund travel of graduate students to Canada.


Notes


References


President Reagan's Nomination of Enders as Assistant Secretary


* ttps://familysearch.org/ark:/61903/1:1:JKX7-N2C United States Social Security Death Index: T O Enders {{DEFAULTSORT:Enders, Thomas Ostrom 1931 births 1996 deaths United States assistant secretaries of state People from Hartford, Connecticut Yale University alumni University of Paris alumni Harvard University alumni Ambassadors of the United States to Canada Ambassadors of the United States to Spain Ambassadors of the United States to the European Union United States Foreign Service personnel American expatriates in France American expatriates in Cambodia American expatriates in Yugoslavia American expatriates in Sweden 20th-century American diplomats