Thomas James (1804–1891) had been a

slave Slavery is the ownership of a person as property, especially in regards to their labour. Slavery typically involves compulsory work, with the slave's location of work and residence dictated by the party that holds them in bondage. Enslavemen ...

who became an African Methodist Episcopal Zion minister,

abolitionist Abolitionism, or the abolitionist movement, is the political movement to end slavery and liberate enslaved individuals around the world. The first country to fully outlaw slavery was Kingdom of France, France in 1315, but it was later used ...

, administrator and author. He was active in New York and Massachusetts with abolitionists, and served with the

American Missionary Association The American Missionary Association (AMA) was a Protestant-based abolitionist group founded on in Albany, New York. The main purpose of the organization was abolition of slavery, education of African Americans, promotion of racial equality, and ...

and the Union Army during the

American Civil War The American Civil War (April 12, 1861May 26, 1865; also known by Names of the American Civil War, other names) was a civil war in the United States between the Union (American Civil War), Union ("the North") and the Confederate States of A ...

to supervise the

contraband Contraband (from Medieval French ''contrebande'' "smuggling") is any item that, relating to its nature, is illegal to be possessed or sold. It comprises goods that by their nature are considered too dangerous or offensive in the eyes of the leg ...

camp in

Louisville, Kentucky Louisville is the List of cities in Kentucky, most populous city in the Commonwealth of Kentucky, sixth-most populous city in the Southeastern United States, Southeast, and the list of United States cities by population, 27th-most-populous city ...

. After the war, he held national offices in the AME Church and was a missionary to black churches in Ohio. While in Massachusetts, he challenged the railroad's custom of forcing blacks into second-class carriages and won a reversal of the rule in the State Supreme Court. He wrote a short

memoir A memoir (; , ) is any nonfiction narrative writing based on the author's personal memories. The assertions made in the work are thus understood to be factual. While memoir has historically been defined as a subcategory of biography or autob ...

published in 1886.

Early life

Thomas James was born into slavery in Canajoharie, New York, in 1804 and named Tom. He was the third child of four of his mother and never knew his father. His family was enslaved by Asa Kimball. A younger sister died when Tom was a child; when he was only eight, he lost his mother, brother and older sister when Kimball sold them away. He never saw his mother or sister again, though his brother, Archibald, would join Thomas in Rochester NY by 1870. When Tom was seventeen, Kimball died, and all his property, including Tom, was sold to a neighbor named Cromwell Bartlett. Bartlett soon traded Tom to George H. Hess, a wealthy farmer. James would write in his 1886 autobiography: "Master Hess ... had worked me hard, and at last undertook to whip me. This led me to seek escape from slavery." Tom ran away in June 1821, becoming a "freedom seeker".

Freedom

He left at night and made his way west along the staked path of the future

Erie Canal The Erie Canal is a historic canal in upstate New York that runs east–west between the Hudson River and Lake Erie. Completed in 1825, the canal was the first navigability, navigable waterway connecting the Atlantic Ocean to the Great Lakes, ...

to Lockport. With help, he crossed the

Niagara River The Niagara River ( ) flows north from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario, forming part of the border between Ontario, Canada, to the west, and New York, United States, to the east. The origin of the river's name is debated. Iroquoian scholar Bruce T ...

Canada Canada is a country in North America. Its Provinces and territories of Canada, ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, making it the world's List of coun ...

and freedom. He stayed about three months until he thought return was safe.

Career and activism

Initial work and education

Going to Rochester, Tom found a community of free blacks and more opportunity for work and education. He started working as a laborer. At nineteen Tom attended a church school to learn how to read and write. Gaining literacy opened the door to religion for him, and in 1823 he joined the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Society (AME Zion). With the opening of the Erie Canal, Tom got a job in the warehouse (where he was called Jim) of the Hudson and Erie line. He boarded with its manager, and also worked around his house. Eventually he was put in charge of the lading of boats and the freight business.Howard W. Coles, ''The Cradle of Freedom: A History of the Negro in Rochester, Western New York and Canada'', New York: Oxford University Press, 1942

Teaching

In 1828 Tom started teaching at a school for black children.

Ministry

The next year started

preaching A sermon is a religious discourse or oration by a preacher, usually a member of clergy. Sermons address a scriptural, theological, or moral topic, usually expounding on a type of belief, law, or behavior within both past and present contexts. E ...

. By 1830 James bought a site and built a small church in Rochester, called the AME Zion Church. When ordained as an African Methodist Episcopal Zion minister in 1833 by AME Zion Bishop Christopher Rush, he took the name Thomas James, his name as a free man. Assigned to a small black congregation in

Syracuse, New York Syracuse ( ) is a City (New York), city in and the county seat of Onondaga County, New York, United States. With a population of 148,620 and a Syracuse metropolitan area, metropolitan area of 662,057, it is the fifth-most populated city and 13 ...

, in 1835, James attracted new members and founded the AME Zion Church. He built the congregation from less than 20 to four times that, and helped the congregation purchase a former Methodist church in 1837 for its use. This was the largest African American congregation in the city before the Civil War, and members were active in abolitionism and

Underground Railroad The Underground Railroad was an organized network of secret routes and safe houses used by freedom seekers to escape to the abolitionist Northern United States and Eastern Canada. Enslaved Africans and African Americans escaped from slavery ...

activities.

Anti-slavery movement

Beginning in 1830, James was influenced by the abolitionism of some members of the

American Colonization Society The American Colonization Society (ACS), initially the Society for the Colonization of Free People of Color of America, was an American organization founded in 1816 by Robert Finley to encourage and support the repatriation of freeborn peop ...

(ACS) and writings by Arthur Tappan. He vowed to make the cause his life's work. He began to organize with others in Rochester, including leading white citizens, to hold anti-slavery meetings and form an anti-slavery society in the city. Sometimes they were greeted with violence, but they continued. He was one of two founders of the bi-weekly paper, ''The Rights of Man'', to promote the cause. James traveled in the county to raise money by subscriptions for the paper. He gradually started speaking at more venues on the cause of

abolitionism Abolitionism, or the abolitionist movement, is the political movement to end slavery and liberate enslaved individuals around the world. The first country to fully outlaw slavery was France in 1315, but it was later used in its colonies. ...

and attended the first Anti-Slavery Society Conference in Utica. Next James was assigned to Ithaca, where a small black religious society already existed. During his two years, James helped the congregation build a church. Next he was sent to

Sag Harbor, New York Sag Harbor is an Administrative divisions of New York#Village, incorporated village in Suffolk County, New York, United States, in the Administrative divisions of New York#Town, towns of Southampton, New York, Southampton and East Hampton (town) ...

, where many free blacks worked in the

whaling Whaling is the hunting of whales for their products such as meat and blubber, which can be turned into a type of oil that was important in the Industrial Revolution. Whaling was practiced as an organized industry as early as 875 AD. By the 16t ...

industry. Last he went to

New Bedford, Massachusetts New Bedford is a city in Bristol County, Massachusetts, United States. It is located on the Acushnet River in what is known as the South Coast region. At the 2020 census, New Bedford had a population of 101,079, making it the state's ninth-l ...

, also a whaling and fishing town. While James led a church, he ordained the future abolitionist

Frederick Douglass Frederick Douglass (born Frederick Augustus Washington Bailey, February 14, 1818 – February 20, 1895) was an American social reformer, Abolitionism in the United States, abolitionist, orator, writer, and statesman. He was the most impor ...

as a preacher in his congregation, before the beginning of Douglass's major public career.James, Thomas. ''Life of Rev. Thomas James, by Himself''
Rochester, N.Y.: Post Express Printing Company, 1886, at ''Documenting the American South'', University of North Carolina, accessed June 3, 2010

Freedom Trail

He contributed to the growing anti-slavery movement in Syracuse and efforts to help escaped slaves on the " Freedom Trail"."AME Zion Church, Site Only", ''The Freedom Trail in Central New York: The Underground Railroad, Abolitionism, and African American Life, 1820-70''
Preservation Association of Central New York, accessed June 4, 2010 James was also active with the anti-slavery movement in Massachusetts when he lived there. James directly helped some slaves gain freedom. For example, while returning to the state by train, he met a young slave girl named Lucy, traveling with her slaveowners from

Richmond, Virginia Richmond ( ) is the List of capitals in the United States, capital city of the Commonwealth (U.S. state), U.S. commonwealth of Virginia. Incorporated in 1742, Richmond has been an independent city (United States), independent city since 1871. ...

. Talking with her in the segregated car, where they were both required to sit, he invited her to attend his church while they were on vacation in the area. A few weeks passed, but she did not come. James went to her master, who said that his slaves could not receive calls and she could not attend his church. James turned to the law for help, and the local sheriff helped free the girl from her slaveowner. Local blacks also helped protect the girl during the events that followed. In the following court case held in

Boston Boston is the capital and most populous city in the Commonwealth (U.S. state), Commonwealth of Massachusetts in the United States. The city serves as the cultural and Financial centre, financial center of New England, a region of the Northeas ...

, the judge announced that according to the laws of Massachusetts, which prohibited slavery, Lucy was free and had the choice of whether to claim that freedom. She did so, and became free the following day. James also assisted with the '' Amistad'' case and issues.

Fugitive Slave Act

While in Boston, James was actively involved in cases dealing with escaped slaves, such as Anthony Burns and Ellen and William Craft. Although the federal Fugitive Slave Act passed in 1850 required states to return slaves to their owners, many Massachusetts citizens strongly opposed the law and helped slaves achieve freedom, even in the face of US Marshals.

Equality

James also successfully challenged the custom of assigning blacks to second class on

railroads Rail transport (also known as train transport) is a means of transport using wheeled vehicles running in tracks, which usually consist of two parallel steel rails. Rail transport is one of the two primary means of land transport, next to road ...

and other transportation. When the railroad case was heard on appeal by the

State Supreme Court In the United States, a state supreme court (known by other names in some states) is the highest court in the state judiciary of a U.S. state. On matters of state law, the judgment of a state supreme court is considered final and binding in ...

in Boston, "the court decided that the word "color," as applied to persons, was unknown to the laws of the commonwealth of Massachusetts, and that the youngest colored child had the same rights as the richest white citizen."

Missionary work

In 1856 James returned to Rochester. After the start of the American Civil War, in 1862 he was assigned to the

to minister to slaves in Tennessee and Louisiana, but was reassigned to

. There he served the occupying Union Army under generals Stephen G. Burbridge and Owen M. Palmer. He helped supervise the

camps, liberated slaves who were being held illegally by traders, and monitored d visited the prisons. By orders of Palmer, James performed marriages between the

United States Colored Troops United States Colored Troops (USCT) were Union Army regiments during the American Civil War that primarily comprised African Americans, with soldiers from other ethnic groups also serving in USCT units. Established in response to a demand fo ...

(USCT) soldiers and black women who came to the camp, to help the latter achieve their legal freedom as wives of USCT. (At the time the Emancipation Proclamation did not apply to Kentucky and slavery was still a legal institution.) After the war in 1868, James was elected general superintendent and missionary agent by the General Conference of the African Methodist Episcopal Congregation. In 1878 Bishop Wayman appointed James as a

missionary A missionary is a member of a Religious denomination, religious group who is sent into an area in order to promote its faith or provide services to people, such as education, literacy, social justice, health care, and economic development.Thoma ...

preacher for the black churches of Ohio. The continuing unsettled state of southern sympathizers was shown by James' being threatened in Darke County by Regulators, one of the

insurgent An insurgency is a violent, armed rebellion by small, lightly armed bands who practice guerrilla warfare against a larger authority. The key descriptive feature of insurgency is its asymmetric nature: small irregular forces face a large, well ...

groups active after the war.

Topeka Relief Association

In 1880, when the exodus from the South to the West began, James worked with the

Topeka Topeka ( ) is the List of capitals in the United States, capital city of the U.S. state of Kansas and the county seat of Shawnee County, Kansas, Shawnee County. It is along the Kansas River in the central part of Shawnee County, in northeaste ...

Relief Association to help the thousands of black migrants arriving in Kansas, who were known as the Exodusters. A total of 60,000 passed through Topeka. The following year, James worked with others in southern Kansas to organize the Agricultural and Industrial Institute (later merged with

Pittsburg State University Pittsburg State University (Pitt State or PSU) is a public university in Pittsburg, Kansas, United States. It enrolls approximately 7,400 students (6,000 undergraduates and 1,400 graduate students) and is a member of the Kansas Board of Regen ...

). Among the other founders was Elizabeth L. Comstock, an English

Quaker Quakers are people who belong to the Religious Society of Friends, a historically Protestant Christian set of denominations. Members refer to each other as Friends after in the Bible, and originally, others referred to them as Quakers ...

who also had aided in the relief efforts in Topeka. James became general agent of the school, one of many established in Kansas.

Marriages and family

James married his first wife, Mary Ann McEntire, in 1829 in Rochester, New York. In his memoir he wrote: "In 1829 I married in this city a free colored girl, and by her had four children, two of whom are now .e., 1887married and living at the West. My first wife died in 1841. Two of their children died young and were buried in Rochester. Thomas mentions a daughter Nancy James in his will (written in 1891), She is called Nancy Thompson in his obituary "Rev. Thomas James: Death of the Aged Colored Clergy-Man of This City" in Rochester ''Union and Advertiser'', printed April 18, 1891. Another daughter (mother unknown) was Eliza James (1845–1896), who went with her father in 1862 to Louisville, Kentucky, and served as a nurse during the Civil War. US Census records show she married Benjamin Thomas in 1867, had nine children, and lived near her father in Rochester. In 1870, James married again, to Esther A. (née Jones) Hazgood. He wrote: "My wife was a slave, freed by Sherman at the capture of

Atlanta Atlanta ( ) is the List of capitals in the United States, capital and List of municipalities in Georgia (U.S. state), most populous city in the U.S. state of Georgia (U.S. state), Georgia. It is the county seat, seat of Fulton County, Georg ...

and sent north with other colored refugees. I first met her in the state of Pennsylvania." President

Abraham Lincoln Abraham Lincoln (February 12, 1809 – April 15, 1865) was the 16th president of the United States, serving from 1861 until Assassination of Abraham Lincoln, his assassination in 1865. He led the United States through the American Civil War ...

Emancipation Proclamation The Emancipation Proclamation, officially Proclamation 95, was a presidential proclamation and executive order issued by United States President Abraham Lincoln on January 1, 1863, during the American Civil War. The Proclamation had the eff ...

freed all slaves in Confederate territory behind Union lines. US Census records show that Thomas and Esther had two children together: Ida James (1870–1887) and Thomas Edward James (1874–1934), who married Grace Burghardt (a second cousin of W.E.B. DuBois). Esther's daughter Eliza Hazgood James (1866–1886) also lived in their household.

Later life

About 1882 James returned to New York state and a parish in Lockport. About 1884, suffering cataracts, James returned with his wife Eliza to Rochester. To raise money, he dictated a short memoir, published in 1886 and titled: "LIFE OF REV. THOMAS JAMES, BY HIMSELF."

Death

James died at his home 144 Tremont Street in Rochester on April 18, 1891.New York Department of Health; Albany, NY; NY State Death Index, Certificate Number 16328