Lieutenant-General Lieutenant general (Lt Gen, LTG and similar) is a military rank used in many countries. The rank traces its origins to the Middle Ages, where the title of lieutenant general was held by the second-in-command on the battlefield, who was normall ...

Theophilus Hunter Holmes (November 13, 1804 – June 21, 1880) was an American soldier who served as a senior

officer An officer is a person who has a position of authority in a hierarchical organization. The term derives from Old French ''oficier'' "officer, official" (early 14c., Modern French ''officier''), from Medieval Latin ''officiarius'' "an officer," fro ...

of the

Confederate States Army The Confederate States Army (CSA), also called the Confederate army or the Southern army, was the Military forces of the Confederate States, military land force of the Confederate States of America (commonly referred to as the Confederacy) duri ...

and commanded

infantry Infantry, or infantryman are a type of soldier who specialize in ground combat, typically fighting dismounted. Historically the term was used to describe foot soldiers, i.e. those who march and fight on foot. In modern usage, the term broadl ...

in the Eastern and

Trans-Mississippi Trans-Mississippi was a common name of the geographic area west of the Mississippi River during the 19th century. The term "Trans-Mississippi" was historically used to refer to any land "across the Mississippi" (or the entire western two-thirds ...

theaters of the

American Civil War The American Civil War (April 12, 1861May 26, 1865; also known by Names of the American Civil War, other names) was a civil war in the United States between the Union (American Civil War), Union ("the North") and the Confederate States of A ...

. He had previously served with distinction as an officer of the

United States Army The United States Army (USA) is the primary Land warfare, land service branch of the United States Department of Defense. It is designated as the Army of the United States in the United States Constitution.Article II, section 2, clause 1 of th ...

in the

Seminole The Seminole are a Native American people who developed in Florida in the 18th century. Today, they live in Oklahoma and Florida, and comprise three federally recognized tribes: the Seminole Nation of Oklahoma, the Seminole Tribe of Florida, ...

and Mexican–American wars. A friend and protégé of Confederate States President

Jefferson Davis Jefferson F. Davis (June 3, 1808December 6, 1889) was an American politician who served as the only President of the Confederate States of America, president of the Confederate States from 1861 to 1865. He represented Mississippi in the Unite ...

, he was appointed commander of the

Trans-Mississippi Department The Trans-Mississippi Department was a territorial department of the Confederate States Army that embraced Arkansas, Louisiana west of the Mississippi river, Texas (including what is now New Mexico and Arizona), and the Indian Territory. It w ...

but failed in his key task, which was to defend the Confederacy's hold on the Mississippi.

Early life and education

Holmes was born in Sampson County, North Carolina, in 1804.Welsh, p. 104. His father, Gabriel Holmes, was a former

Governor of North Carolina The governor of North Carolina is the head of government of the United States, U.S. state of North Carolina. Seventy-five people have held the office since the first state governor, Richard Caswell, took office in 1777. The governor serves a ...

and U.S. Congressman.Hoig, p. 306.McCrady, pp. 608–609. After a failed attempt at plantation managing, Holmes asked his father for an appointment to the

United States Military Academy The United States Military Academy (USMA), commonly known as West Point, is a United States service academies, United States service academy in West Point, New York that educates cadets for service as Officer_(armed_forces)#United_States, comm ...

, from which he graduated in 1829. He was ranked 44 out of 46 in his class.Williams, pp. 989–990. Holmes was quite deaf and was rarely aware of loud gunfire.

United States Army

After graduating, Holmes was commissioned a brevet second lieutenant in the 7th U.S. Infantry Regiment. In 1838, Holmes attained the rank of

captain Captain is a title, an appellative for the commanding officer of a military unit; the supreme leader or highest rank officer of a navy ship, merchant ship, aeroplane, spacecraft, or other vessel; or the commander of a port, fire or police depa ...

. During his early services, Holmes served in Florida, the

Indian Territory Indian Territory and the Indian Territories are terms that generally described an evolving land area set aside by the Federal government of the United States, United States government for the relocation of Native Americans in the United States, ...

, and Texas. Holmes also served in the

Second Seminole War The Second Seminole War, also known as the Florida War, was a conflict from 1835 to 1842 in Florida between the United States and groups of people collectively known as Seminoles, consisting of Muscogee, Creek and Black Seminoles as well as oth ...

, with distinction. In 1841, he married Laura Whetmore, with whom he had eight children. During the

Mexican–American War The Mexican–American War (Spanish language, Spanish: ''guerra de Estados Unidos-México, guerra mexicano-estadounidense''), also known in the United States as the Mexican War, and in Mexico as the United States intervention in Mexico, ...

, he was brevetted to

major Major most commonly refers to: * Major (rank), a military rank * Academic major, an academic discipline to which an undergraduate student formally commits * People named Major, including given names, surnames, nicknames * Major and minor in musi ...

for the

Battle of Monterrey In the Battle of Monterrey (September 21–24, 1846) during the Mexican–American War, General Pedro de Ampudia and the Mexican Army of the North was defeated by the Army of Occupation, a force of United States Regulars, Volunteers, an ...

in September 1846. This promotion was due to

witnessing his courageous actions there. He received a full promotion to

of the 8th U.S. Infantry Regiment in 1855.

Confederate States Army

Early service

Almost immediately after the firing on

Fort Sumter Fort Sumter is a historical Coastal defense and fortification#Sea forts, sea fort located near Charleston, South Carolina. Constructed on an artificial island at the entrance of Charleston Harbor in 1829, the fort was built in response to the W ...

, Holmes resigned his commission in the U.S. Army and his command of Fort Columbus, on

Governors Island Governors Island is a island in New York Harbor, within the Boroughs of New York City, New York City borough of Manhattan. It is located approximately south of Manhattan Island, and is separated from Brooklyn to the east by the Buttermilk ...

in New York City, on April 22, 1861, having accepted a commission as a

colonel Colonel ( ; abbreviated as Col., Col, or COL) is a senior military Officer (armed forces), officer rank used in many countries. It is also used in some police forces and paramilitary organizations. In the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, a colon ...

in the

in March. He commanded the coastal defenses of the Department of North Carolina and then served as a brigadier-general in the North Carolina Militia. He was appointed brigadier-general on June 5, 1861, commanding the Department of Fredericksburg. Holmes was assigned to P. G. T. Beauregard, for the First Battle of Manassas. Beauregard sent Holmes orders to attack the U.S. left, but by the time the orders reached Holmes, the

Confederate army The Confederate States Army (CSA), also called the Confederate army or the Southern army, was the military land force of the Confederate States of America (commonly referred to as the Confederacy) during the American Civil War (1861–1865), fi ...

was already victorious. Holmes was promoted to major general on October 7, 1861. He subsequently commanded the Aquia District before being assigned to the Department of North Carolina.

Peninsula Campaign

During the

Peninsula Campaign The Peninsula campaign (also known as the Peninsular campaign) of the American Civil War was a major Union operation launched in southeastern Virginia from March to July 1862, the first large-scale offensive in the Eastern Theater. The oper ...

in the spring of 1862, Holmes was moved to the Richmond area to defend it from the U.S. assault on the Confederate capital; thus, he became temporarily attached to the

Army of Northern Virginia The Army of Northern Virginia was a field army of the Confederate States Army in the Eastern Theater of the American Civil War. It was also the primary command structure of the Department of Northern Virginia. It was most often arrayed agains ...

.Dougherty, pp. 22–23. His division consisted of the

brigade A brigade is a major tactical military unit, military formation that typically comprises three to six battalions plus supporting elements. It is roughly equivalent to an enlarged or reinforced regiment. Two or more brigades may constitute ...

s of Brigadier-Generals Junius Daniel, John G. Walker, Henry A. Wise, and the

cavalry Historically, cavalry (from the French word ''cavalerie'', itself derived from ''cheval'' meaning "horse") are groups of soldiers or warriors who Horses in warfare, fight mounted on horseback. Until the 20th century, cavalry were the most mob ...

brigade of Brig. Gen.

J. E. B. Stuart James Ewell Brown "Jeb" Stuart (February 6, 1833May 12, 1864) was a Confederate cavalry general during the American Civil War. He was known to his friends as "Jeb,” from the initials of his given names. Stuart was a cavalry commander known f ...

. On June 30, 1862, while the

Battle of Glendale A battle is an occurrence of combat in warfare between opposing military units of any number or size. A war usually consists of multiple battles. In general, a battle is a military engagement that is well defined in duration, area, and force ...

was fought to the north, Holmes was ordered to cannonade retreating U.S. soldiers near Malvern Hill. His force was repulsed at Turkey Bridge by

artillery Artillery consists of ranged weapons that launch Ammunition, munitions far beyond the range and power of infantry firearms. Early artillery development focused on the ability to breach defensive walls and fortifications during sieges, and l ...

fire from Malvern Hill and by the U.S.

gunboat A gunboat is a naval watercraft designed for the express purpose of carrying one or more guns to bombard coastal targets, as opposed to those military craft designed for naval warfare, or for ferrying troops or supplies. History Pre-steam ...

s ''Galena'' and ''Aroostook'' on the James. His force was in reserve during the Battle of Malvern Hill on July 1, 1862. After the

Seven Days Battles The Seven Days Battles were a series of seven battles over seven days from June 25 to July 1, 1862, near Richmond, Virginia, during the American Civil War. Confederate States Army, Confederate General Robert E. Lee drove the invading Union Army ...

, Robert E. Lee expressed displeasure at Holmes's mediocre performance. The two also had fundamental disagreements on strategy. Lee appears to have not been alone in his belief that the nearly 60-year-old Holmes was too old, sluggish, and passive (better as an administrator than a field commander) to wage the aggressive war of movement that Lee planned. In truth, the entire Confederate counterattack in the Seven Days Battles had been handled ineffectively, and many generals were to blame, including Lee himself. Jefferson Davis, in particular, did not think Holmes was any more at fault than the rest of the Army of Northern Virginia's command structure. Nonetheless, his age and unremarkable record in the war up to that point were factors against him, and Lee quickly made it clear that Holmes would not make the cut during the post-Seven Days restructuring of the army. General D. H. Hill, who was known for his sarcastic temperament, also widely spread the story of Holmes, saying, "I thought I heard firing" at Malvern Hill.

Trans-Mississippi Department

Holmes was then reassigned to the command of the

. On October 10, 1862,

promoted Holmes to lieutenant-general, but Holmes initially declined, feeling he had done nothing to deserve the promotion. However, Davis urged him, and eventually, Holmes accepted. During his time as commander of the Trans-Mississippi Department, Holmes failed to perform his most important duty: defend the Confederacy's hold on the

Mississippi River The Mississippi River is the main stem, primary river of the largest drainage basin in the United States. It is the second-longest river in the United States, behind only the Missouri River, Missouri. From its traditional source of Lake Ita ...

. He refused to send troops to relieve

Vicksburg, Mississippi Vicksburg is a historic city in Warren County, Mississippi, United States. It is the county seat. The population was 21,573 at the 2020 census. Located on a high bluff on the east bank of the Mississippi River across from Louisiana, Vicksburg ...

, during the

Vicksburg Campaign The Vicksburg campaigns were a series of maneuvers and battles in the Western Theater of the American Civil War directed against Vicksburg, Mississippi, a fortress city that dominated the last Confederate-controlled section of the Mississippi ...

, leading to a U.S. victory. Holmes, operating from

Arkansas Arkansas ( ) is a landlocked state in the West South Central region of the Southern United States. It borders Missouri to the north, Tennessee and Mississippi to the east, Louisiana to the south, Texas to the southwest, and Oklahoma ...

, protested that the troops in that state were nearly useless and there was no realistic possibility of using them to relieve Vicksburg. For the most part, the Confederate forces in this remote area were little more than a disorganized mob of militia scattered across all corners of the state. There were few weapons available and even fewer modern ones. For the most part, the soldiers had no shoes, no uniforms, no munitions, no training, organization, or discipline, a situation worsened by the fact that many communities in Arkansas had no government above the village level. People did not pay taxes or have any written laws and strongly resisted any attempt to impose an outside government or military discipline on them. Soldiers in the Arkansas militia did not understand the organization of a proper army or obey orders from above. Even worse, many were in poor physical condition and unable to handle the rigors of a lengthy military campaign. Holmes, for his part, believed that he could muster an army of about 15,000 men in Arkansas, but there would be almost no competent officers to lead it anyway. Further compounding his difficulties were multiple U.S. armies converging on the state from all sides. In this situation, Holmes wrote to Richmond that if, by some miracle, he could organize the Arkansas militia into an army and get them across the Mississippi River, they would desert as soon as they got to the east bank. As another serious difficulty, the remote Trans-Mississippi region had considerably lower support for the Confederate cause than the states of the east. Declaring secession from the United States in 1861 had largely been the decision of the state legislature of Arkansas and was not well received among much of the population. Attempts to enforce conscription into the Confederate army met with resistance. Many locals dodged the draft, became guerrillas, or even joined the U.S. army, resulting in harsh penalties imposed by state governments against draft dodgers.Hilderman After numerous complaints were sent to Davis, who had little understanding of events in a region almost 900 miles from Richmond, Holmes was relieved as head of the Trans-Mississippi Department in March 1863.

District of Arkansas

After Holmes was relieved as head of the

, General

Edmund Kirby Smith Edmund Kirby Smith (May 16, 1824March 28, 1893) was a General officers in the Confederate States Army, Confederate States Army Four-star rank, general, who oversaw the Trans-Mississippi Department (comprising Arkansas, Missouri, Texas, western L ...

appointed him head of the District of Arkansas and in June, ordered Holmes to make a desperation attack to take some pressure off the beleaguered Vicksburg garrison. On July 4, the day Vicksburg fell to U.S. General

Ulysses Grant Ulysses S. Grant (born Hiram Ulysses Grant; April 27, 1822July 23, 1885) was the 18th president of the United States, serving from 1869 to 1877. In 1865, as commanding general, Grant led the Union Army to victory in the American Civil War ...

's army, Holmes attacked the U.S. garrison at

Helena, Arkansas Helena is the eastern portion of Helena–West Helena, Arkansas, a city in Phillips County, Arkansas, located on the west bank of the Mississippi River. It was founded in 1833 by Nicholas Rightor and is named after the daughter of Sylvanus Phil ...

with 8,000 men. He planned a coordinated attack in conjunction with

Sterling Price Sterling Price (September 14, 1809 – September 29, 1867) was an American politician and military officer who was a senior General officers in the Confederate States Army, officer of the Confederate States Army, fighting in both the Weste ...

, John S. Marmaduke, James Fleming Fagan, and

Governor of Arkansas The governor of Arkansas is the head of government of the U.S. state of Arkansas. The Governor (United States), governor is the head of the Executive (government), executive branch of the Politics and government of Arkansas, Arkansas government a ...

Harris Flanagin. Despite miscommunication, the Confederate army had some initial success, but after hours of fighting, a general retreat was called. The Confederates pulled back to

Little Rock, Arkansas Little Rock is the List of capitals in the United States, capital and List of municipalities in Arkansas, most populous city of the U.S. state of Arkansas. The city's population was 202,591 as of the 2020 census. The six-county Central Arkan ...

. On July 23, Holmes became ill and temporarily relinquished command in Arkansas to Sterling Price. Price evacuated Little Rock on September 10, and two weeks later Holmes resumed command. In a letter sent to Jefferson Davis on January 29, 1864, Kirby Smith reported that Holmes's age was catching up to him and that he was deficient in energy and suffering memory problems; thus, he needed to be replaced by a younger man. The soldiers he commanded in Arkansas had already taken to sarcastically calling him "Granny". Upon learning of this, an insulted Holmes resigned from his post on February 28.

Later service and life

In April 1864, Holmes commanded the Reserve Forces of North Carolina. Holmes saw little action after being appointed to this new position. He held this position until the end of the war. Holmes, along with General

Joseph E. Johnston Joseph Eggleston Johnston (February 3, 1807 – March 21, 1891) was an American military officer who served in the United States Army during the Mexican–American War (1846–1848) and the Seminole Wars. After Virginia declared secession from ...

, surrendered to

William Tecumseh Sherman William Tecumseh Sherman ( ; February 8, 1820February 14, 1891) was an American soldier, businessman, educator, and author. He served as a General officer, general in the Union Army during the American Civil War (1861–1865), earning recognit ...

on April 26, 1865.Eicher pg. 875 He returned to North Carolina, where he spent the rest of his life as a farmer. Holmes died on June 21, 1880, in

Fayetteville, North Carolina Fayetteville ( , ) is a city in and the county seat of Cumberland County, North Carolina, United States. It is best known as the home of Fort Bragg, a major U.S. Army installation northwest of the city. Fayetteville has received the All-Ameri ...

, and is buried there in MacPherson Presbyterian Church Cemetery.

Notes

Bibliography

* Dougherty, Kevin, and Michael J. Moore. ''The Peninsula Campaign of 1862: A Military Analysis''. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2005. . * Eicher, John H., and David J. Eicher, ''Civil War High Commands.'' Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2001. . * Hilderman, Walter C. III ''Theophilus Hunter Holmes: A North Carolina General in the Civil War''. McFarland & Company Inc., 2013. . * Hoig, Stan. ''Beyond the Frontier: Exploring the Indian Country''. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1998. . * Johnston, Joseph E. ''Narrative of Military Operations''. New York: D. Appleton and Company, 1874. * McCrady, Edward, and Samuel A'Court Ashe
''Cyclopedia of Eminent and Representative Men of the Carolinas of the Nineteenth Century''
Vol. 2. Madison, WS: Brant & Fuller, 1892. . * Welsh, Jack D. ''Medical Histories of Confederate Generals''. Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1999. . * Williams, Clay. "Theophilus Hunter Holmes." In ''Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History'', edited by David S. Heidler and Jeanne T. Heidler. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2000. .

External links

* * {{DEFAULTSORT:Holmes, Theophilus 1804 births 1880 deaths American military personnel of the Indian Wars American military personnel of the Mexican–American War Confederate States Army lieutenant generals People from Sampson County, North Carolina People of North Carolina in the American Civil War United States Army officers United States Military Academy alumni