The tetrad is the four spores produced after meiosis of a yeast or other Ascomycota, ''Chlamydomonas'' or other alga, or a plant. After parent haploids mate, they produce diploids. Under appropriate environmental conditions, diploids sporulate and undergo meiosis. The meiotic products, spores, remain packaged in the parental cell body to produce the tetrad.

Genetic typification

If the two parents have a mutation in two different genes, the tetrad can segregate these genes as the parental ditype ( PD), the non-parental ditype (NPD) or as the tetratype (TT). Parental ditype is a tetrad type containing two different genotypes, both of which are parental. A spore arrangement in

ascomycetes Ascomycota is a phylum of the kingdom Fungi that, together with the Basidiomycota, forms the subkingdom Dikarya. Its members are commonly known as the sac fungi or ascomycetes. It is the largest phylum of Fungi, with over 64,000 species. The de ...

that contains only the two non-recombinant-type ascospores. Non-parental ditype (NPD) is a spore that contains only the two recombinant-type ascospores (assuming two segregating loci). A tetrad type containing two different genotypes, both of which are recombinant. Tetratype is a tetrad containing four different genotypes, two parental and two recombinant. A spore arrangement in ascomycetes that consists of two parental and two recombinant spores indicates a single crossover between two linked loci.

Linkage analysis

The ratio between the different segregation types arising after the sporulation is a measure of the linkage between the two genes.

Tetrad dissection

Tetrad dissection has become a powerful tool of yeast geneticists, and is used in conjunction with the many established procedures utilizing the versatility of yeasts as

model organism A model organism is a non-human species that is extensively studied to understand particular biological phenomena, with the expectation that discoveries made in the model organism will provide insight into the workings of other organisms. Mo ...

s. Use of modern

microscopy Microscopy is the technical field of using microscopes to view subjects too small to be seen with the naked eye (objects that are not within the resolution range of the normal eye). There are three well-known branches of microscopy: optical mic ...

and micromanipulation techniques allows the four haploid spores of a yeast tetrad to be separated and germinated individually to form isolated spore colonies.

Uses

Tetrad analysis can be used to confirm whether a phenotype is caused by a specific mutation, construction of strains, and for investigating gene interaction. Since the frequency of tetrad segregation types is influenced by the recombination frequency for the two markers, the segregation data can be used to calculate the genetic distance between the markers if they are close on the same chromosome. Tetrad analyses have also contributed to detection and study of the phenomena of gene conversion and post-meiotic segregation. These studies have proven central to understanding the mechanism of meiotic recombination, which in turn is a key to understanding the adaptive function of sexual reproduction. The use of tetrads in fine-structure genetic analysis is described in the articles '' Neurospora crassa'' and

Gene conversion Gene conversion is the process by which one DNA sequence replaces a homologous sequence such that the sequences become identical after the conversion. Gene conversion can be either allelic, meaning that one allele of the same gene replaces another ...

General procedure

Crosses are performed between haploid MATa and MATα mating strains, then the resulting diploids are transferred to sporulation media to form a tetrad containing four haploid spores. Tetrads can then be prepared with Zymolyase, or another enzyme, to digest the wall of the ascus. The spores are then separated with a micromanipulator needle and deposited in separate positions on a

petri dish A Petri dish (alternatively known as a Petri plate or cell-culture dish) is a shallow transparent lidded dish that biologists use to hold growth medium in which cells can be cultured,R. C. Dubey (2014): ''A Textbook Of Biotechnology For Class- ...

Tools

Traditionally, tetrad dissection has a reputation as "black art".Yeast Protocols: Methods in Cell and Molecular Biology, Ivor Howell Evan, Published by Humana Press, 1996, , However, instruments have since been developed specifically for tetrad dissection; the most advanced allow easy and semi-automated separation of tetrads. Most micromanipulators use a glass fiber needle to which the spores adhere due to the formation of a water meniscus between the

agar Agar ( or ), or agar-agar, is a jelly-like substance consisting of polysaccharides obtained from the cell walls of some species of red algae, primarily from " ogonori" and " tengusa". As found in nature, agar is a mixture of two components, t ...

and the needle.

References

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External links

"Crosses, diploids, and tetrads"
Fungus genetics Plant genetics