Tel Yokneam, also spelled Yoqne'am or Jokneam (), is an

archaeological site An archaeological site is a place (or group of physical sites) in which evidence of past activity is preserved (either prehistoric or recorded history, historic or contemporary), and which has been, or may be, investigated using the discipline ...

located in the northern part of the modern city of

Yokneam Illit Yokneam Illit (), also Yoqne'am Illit, is a city in the Northern District of Israel. It is located in a hilly region of the Lower Galilee at the base of the Carmel Mountains, and overlooks the Jezreel Valley. It is from Haifa and from Tel Av ...

, Israel. It is known in Arabic as Tell Qamun (), believed to be a corruption of the Hebrew name. The site is an elevated mound, or tell, spanning around 40

dunam A dunam ( Ottoman Turkish, Arabic: ; ; ; ), also known as a donum or dunum and as the old, Turkish, or Ottoman stremma, was the Ottoman unit of area analogous in role (but not equal) to the Greek stremma or English acre, representing the amo ...

s (10 acres/4 ha) and rising steeply to a height of . ''Yoqne'am I'', pp. 1–2 With a few brief interruptions, Yokneam was occupied for 4,000 years, from the Middle

Bronze Age The Bronze Age () was a historical period characterised principally by the use of bronze tools and the development of complex urban societies, as well as the adoption of writing in some areas. The Bronze Age is the middle principal period of ...

to the Ottoman period. Ben-Tor, 1987, p. 2 The ancient settlement at Tel Yokneam is first mentioned in Egyptian sources as a city conquered by Pharaoh

Thutmose III Thutmose III (variously also spelt Tuthmosis or Thothmes), sometimes called Thutmose the Great, (1479–1425 BC) was the fifth pharaoh of the 18th Dynasty of Egypt. He is regarded as one of the greatest warriors, military commanders, and milita ...

.Yuval Goren,

Israel Finkelstein Israel Finkelstein (; born March 29, 1949) is an Israelis, Israeli archaeologist, professor emeritus at Tel Aviv University and the head of the School of Archaeology and Maritime Cultures at the University of Haifa. Finkelstein is active in the a ...

, and Nadav Na'aman. "Petrographic Investigation of the Amarna Tablets." ''Near Eastern Archaeology'' 65, no. 3 (2002): 202–203. It appears later in the

Hebrew Bible The Hebrew Bible or Tanakh (;"Tanach"
. '' Joshua Joshua ( ), also known as Yehoshua ( ''Yəhōšuaʿ'', Tiberian Hebrew, Tiberian: ''Yŏhōšuaʿ,'' Literal translation, lit. 'Yahweh is salvation'), Jehoshua, or Josue, functioned as Moses' assistant in the books of Book of Exodus, Exodus and ...

and settled by the

Tribe of Levi According to the Bible, the Tribe of Levi is one of the tribes of Israel, traditionally descended from Levi, son of Jacob. The descendants of Aaron, who was the first High Priest of Israel, were designated as the priestly class, the Kohanim. ...

.Elizabeth Bloch-Smith and Beth Alpert Nakhai, "A Landscape Comes to Life: The Iron Age I", Near Eastern Archaeology, Vol. 62, No. 2, The University of Chicago Press on behalf of The American Schools of Oriental Research, p. 83–85 It is mentioned twice in Roman sources.Amnon Ben-Tor and Renate Rosenthal, During the

Crusades The Crusades were a series of religious wars initiated, supported, and at times directed by the Papacy during the Middle Ages. The most prominent of these were the campaigns to the Holy Land aimed at reclaiming Jerusalem and its surrounding t ...

, it was called Caymont, or Cain Mons, recalling a legend that Yokneam was the site of

Cain Cain is a biblical figure in the Book of Genesis within Abrahamic religions. He is the elder brother of Abel, and the firstborn son of Adam and Eve, the first couple within the Bible. He was a farmer who gave an offering of his crops to God. How ...

's death. For a period, it was the center of the Lordship of Caymont, the smallest

seigneurie In English law, seignory or seigniory, spelled ''signiory'' in Early Modern English (; ; ), is the lordship (authority) remaining to a grantor after the grant of an estate in fee simple. '' Nulle terre sans seigneur'' ("No land without a lord") ...

of the

Crusader Crusader or Crusaders may refer to: Military * Crusader, a participant in one of the Crusades * Convair NB-36H Crusader, an experimental nuclear-powered bomber * Crusader tank, a British cruiser tank of World War II * Crusaders (guerrilla), a C ...

kingdom of Jerusalem The Kingdom of Jerusalem, also known as the Crusader Kingdom, was one of the Crusader states established in the Levant immediately after the First Crusade. It lasted for almost two hundred years, from the accession of Godfrey of Bouillon in 1 ...

. The earliest archaeological features of Yokneam date from the

Chalcolithic The Chalcolithic ( ) (also called the Copper Age and Eneolithic) was an archaeological period characterized by the increasing use of smelted copper. It followed the Neolithic and preceded the Bronze Age. It occurred at different periods in di ...

period, in the fourth millennium

BCE Common Era (CE) and Before the Common Era (BCE) are year notations for the Gregorian calendar (and its predecessor, the Julian calendar), the world's most widely used calendar era. Common Era and Before the Common Era are alternatives to the o ...

. The first structures date from the beginning of the second millennium BCE.Sharon Zuckerman, "''Chapter Eighth – The Early Bronze Age Remains"'' in ''Yoqne'am III'' pp. 351–360 During the Middle and Late Bronze Ages (2000–1200 BCE), Yokneam was for the most part a fortified city, which was razed during a period known as the

Late Bronze Age collapse The Late Bronze Age collapse was a period of societal collapse in the Mediterranean basin during the 12th century BC. It is thought to have affected much of the Eastern Mediterranean and Near East, in particular Egypt, Anatolia, the Aegea ...

.Yoqne'am Regional Project – 1984–1987, p.19 During the Iron Age, the city was razed and rebuilt several times; events which are attributed to the biblical accounts of the conquests by

Joshua Joshua ( ), also known as Yehoshua ( ''Yəhōšuaʿ'', Tiberian Hebrew, Tiberian: ''Yŏhōšuaʿ,'' Literal translation, lit. 'Yahweh is salvation'), Jehoshua, or Josue, functioned as Moses' assistant in the books of Book of Exodus, Exodus and ...

King David David (; , "beloved one") was a king of ancient Israel and Judah and the third king of the United Monarchy, according to the Hebrew Bible and Old Testament. The Tel Dan stele, an Aramaic-inscribed stone erected by a king of Aram-Damas ...

Hazael Hazael (; ; Old Aramaic 𐤇𐤆𐤀𐤋 ''Ḥzʔl'') was a king of Aram-Damascus mentioned in the Bible. Under his reign, Aram-Damascus became an empire that ruled over large parts of contemporary Syria and Israel-Samaria. While he was likely ...

Aram-Damascus Aram-Damascus ( ) was an Arameans, Aramean polity that existed from the late-12th century BCE until 732 BCE, and was centred around the city of Damascus in the Southern Levant. Alongside various tribal lands, it was bounded in its later years b ...

, and the

Neo-Assyrian Empire The Neo-Assyrian Empire was the fourth and penultimate stage of ancient Assyrian history. Beginning with the accession of Adad-nirari II in 911 BC, the Neo-Assyrian Empire grew to dominate the ancient Near East and parts of South Caucasus, Nort ...

. The period between the 10th and 8th centuries BCE is considered Yokneam's golden age, during which it extended beyond the mound's limits. The city was protected at that time by a massive fortification system. During Persian rule (539–330 BC) Yokneam was a dense, unfortified, and cosmopolitan city, housing Jews, Phoenicians, and Persians. Cimadevilla (2005), pp. 409–410 Very little has been found in Yokneam from the

Hellenistic In classical antiquity, the Hellenistic period covers the time in Greek history after Classical Greece, between the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and the death of Cleopatra VII in 30 BC, which was followed by the ascendancy of the R ...

, Roman, and Byzantine periods (333 BCE–634 CE), because the settlement was probably located on a different hill, south of Tel Yokneam. The remains of a Byzantine church were found in the southern part of the mound. After the Islamic conquest of 634 AD, a well-planned city was established on the mound by the

Abbasid Caliphate The Abbasid Caliphate or Abbasid Empire (; ) was the third caliphate to succeed the Islamic prophet Muhammad. It was founded by a dynasty descended from Muhammad's uncle, Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib (566–653 CE), from whom the dynasty takes ...

. It was gradually abandoned and was struck by an earthquake in 1033 CE. ''Yoqne'am I'', pp. 17–20, 217 In the 12th century CE, the

Crusaders The Crusades were a series of religious wars initiated, supported, and at times directed by the Papacy during the Middle Ages. The most prominent of these were the campaigns to the Holy Land aimed at reclaiming Jerusalem and its surrounding ...

built a fortified city on the site, the largest since the

Iron Age The Iron Age () is the final epoch of the three historical Metal Ages, after the Chalcolithic and Bronze Age. It has also been considered as the final age of the three-age division starting with prehistory (before recorded history) and progre ...

. Portugali, ''Yoqne'am I'', 1996 The city eventually fell to the Muslims, and was rebuilt by the

Mamluk Mamluk or Mamaluk (; (singular), , ''mamālīk'' (plural); translated as "one who is owned", meaning "slave") were non-Arab, ethnically diverse (mostly Turkic, Caucasian, Eastern and Southeastern European) enslaved mercenaries, slave-so ...

s during the 14th century CE. ''Yoqne'am I'', p. 172 After the Ottoman conquest of 1517 CE, a fortress was built in the 18th century, and later abandoned in the 19th century.Miriam Avissar, The site, which had remained abandoned, was surveyed by the

Palestine Exploration Fund The Palestine Exploration Fund is a British society based in London. It was founded in 1865, shortly after the completion of the Ordnance Survey of Jerusalem by Royal Engineers of the War Department. The Fund is the oldest known organization i ...

in 1878, and by Avner Raban in the 1970s. It was first excavated as part of a "Yoqne'am Regional Project" run by the

Hebrew University of Jerusalem The Hebrew University of Jerusalem (HUJI; ) is an Israeli public university, public research university based in Jerusalem. Co-founded by Albert Einstein and Chaim Weizmann in July 1918, the public university officially opened on 1 April 1925. ...

and the

Israel Exploration Society The Israel Exploration Society (''IES'') (Hebrew:החברה לחקירת ארץ ישראל ועתיקותיה – Hakhevra Lekhakirat Eretz Yisrael Va'atikoteha), originally the Jewish Palestine Exploration Society, is a society devoted to histor ...

. The

excavations In archaeology, excavation is the exposure, processing and recording of archaeological remains. An excavation site or "dig" is the area being studied. These locations range from one to several areas at a time during a project and can be condu ...

, between 1977 and 1988, were directed by the archaeologist Amnon Ben-Tor. Some of the digs were also headed by Renate Rosenthal and Yuval Portugali.Amnon Ben-Tor and Anabel Zarzecki-Peleg
"Yoqne'am Regional Project – 1984–1987"
''Hadashot Arkheologiyot''. Israel Antiquities Authority (1987) (in Hebrew). pp. 18–24 Two other sites were studied in that project: Tel Qashish and

Tel Qiri Tel Qiri () is a tel and an ancient village site located inside the modern kibbutz of HaZore'a in northern Israel. It lies on the eastern slopes of the Menashe Heights and the western edge of the Jezreel Valley. As of the beginning of the excavati ...

. Further excavations were conducted on the acropolis by Miriam Avissar in 1993. Today. there is an archaeological park and a visitor center on the mound. The park is operated by the

Israel Antiquities Authority The Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA, ; , before 1990, the Israel Department of Antiquities) is an independent Israeli governmental authority responsible for enforcing the 1978 Law of Antiquities. The IAA regulates excavation and conservatio ...

and the municipality of

. It was created as part of a conservation project, with the participation of school students from Yokneam Illit.

Etymology

The name Yokneam () is Hebrew in origin, from the

Hebrew Bible The Hebrew Bible or Tanakh (;"Tanach"
. '' Pharaoh Thutmose III. This form of the name possibly derives from the nearby springs (or ''"en"'') and is perhaps a corruption of "'En Yoqneam" ("Spring of Yoqneam"). The site is mentioned in the ''

Onomasticon Onomasticon may refer to: *Onomasticon (Eusebius) *Onomasticon of Amenope *Onomasticon of Joan Coromines *Onomasticon of Julius Pollux Julius Pollux (, ''Ioulios Polydeukes''; fl. 2nd century) was a Greeks, Greek scholar and rhetorician from Naucr ...

'' of

Eusebius Eusebius of Caesarea (30 May AD 339), also known as Eusebius Pamphilius, was a historian of Christianity, exegete, and Christian polemicist from the Roman province of Syria Palaestina. In about AD 314 he became the bishop of Caesarea Maritima. ...

as a village called Kammona.

Jerome Jerome (; ; ; – 30 September 420), also known as Jerome of Stridon, was an early Christian presbyter, priest, Confessor of the Faith, confessor, theologian, translator, and historian; he is commonly known as Saint Jerome. He is best known ...

described it as Cimona. Following the Muslim conquest, the site was called Qaymun. After the

First Crusade The First Crusade (1096–1099) was the first of a series of religious wars, or Crusades, initiated, supported and at times directed by the Latin Church in the Middle Ages. The objective was the recovery of the Holy Land from Muslim conquest ...

, around 1130

Fetellus Rorgo Fretellus, also spelled FetellusJames Rose Macpherson, ed. (1896), Fetellus (circa 1130 A.D.)' (London: Palestine Pilgrims' Text Society), pp. v–x. (fl. 1119–1154),Jonathan Riley-Smith (1981), "Review of ''Rorgo Fretellus de Nazareth et ...

referred to it as Cain Mons (''Kaym Mons'' or ''Kaim Monte'', literally "Cain's Mountain"), identifying the site with a legend of Cain's slaying at the hand of his descendant, Lamech. The name "Cain Mons" is probably a corruption of the Arabic "Qaymun", or "Caimum" as the name appeared in the first Latin sources. The name was later transformed into Caymont.Conder (1878), pp. 130-131 In 1799,

Pierre Jacotin Pierre Jacotin (1765–1827) was the director of the Surveying, survey for the ''Carte de l'Égypte (Description de l'Égypte)'', the first triangulation-based map of Egypt, Syria and Palestine. The maps were drafted in 1799–1800 during Napole ...

labeled the site Chateau d'El Kireh (Castle of Qira). The castle mentioned is probably the Ottoman castle attributed to

Zahir al-Umar Zahir al-Umar al-Zaydani, alternatively spelled Dhaher el-OmarDAAHL Site Rec ...

. " Qira" refers to a village of that name that then existed nearby.Yehuda Karmon, The site name appears in 19th century sources as a variant, Tell Qamun, which was probably the local Arab name.

Geography

Tel Yokneam is located in the western

Jezreel Valley The Jezreel Valley (from the ), or Marj Ibn Amir (), also known as the Valley of Megiddo, is a large fertile plain and inland valley in the Northern District (Israel), Northern District of Israel. It is bordered to the north by the highlands o ...

. The region's abundant water, moderate climate, and fertile soils allow inhabitants to grow a variety of crops in the valley and herd cattle on the slopes of the

Menashe Heights The Manasseh Hills or hill country of Manasseh, directly derived from Hebrew: Menashe Heights (), called Bilad ar-Ruha in Arabic, meaning "Land of Winds", is a geographical region in northern Israel, located on the Carmel Range, between Mount Ca ...

and

Mount Carmel Mount Carmel (; ), also known in Arabic as Mount Mar Elias (; ), is a coastal mountain range in northern Israel stretching from the Mediterranean Sea towards the southeast. The range is a UNESCO biosphere reserve. A number of towns are situat ...

.Amnon Ben-Tor and Renate Rosenthal, Tel Yokneam rises to a height of . The mound spans approximately 10 acres, or 40

s. Including its slopes, the site as a whole is relatively large, covering some . The mound can be divided into three parts: a lower terrace in the north, an upper terrace in the center, and an acropolis (upper city) at the southwestern end. The top of the mound slopes steeply upward from north to south, a feature which led ancient Yokneam's builders to create the terraces on which its structures were built.

Strategic location

Yokneam stands at the junction of two major ancient (and modern) routes. The ancient international coastal highway ("

Via Maris Via Maris, or Way of Horus () was an ancient trade route, dating from the early Bronze Age, linking Egypt with the northern empires of Syria, Anatolia and Mesopotamia – along the Mediterranean coast of modern-day Egypt, Israel, Turkey and S ...

") avoided the difficult coastal stretch along Mount Carmel's western flank by crossing the mountain along one of two

pass road Pass, PASS, The Pass or Passed may refer to: Places *Pass, County Meath, a townland in Ireland *Pass, Poland, a village in Poland *El Paso, Texas, a city which translates to "The Pass" * Pass, an alternate term for a number of straits: see Li ...

s, a western one ending at Yokneam, and one east of it coming out at

Megiddo Megiddo may refer to: Places and sites in Israel * Tel Megiddo, site of an ancient city in Israel's Jezreel valley * Megiddo Airport, a domestic airport in Israel * Megiddo church (Israel) * Megiddo, Israel, a kibbutz in Israel * Megiddo Juncti ...

. The western pass was used by those heading for

Phoenicia Phoenicians were an Ancient Semitic-speaking peoples, ancient Semitic group of people who lived in the Phoenician city-states along a coastal strip in the Levant region of the eastern Mediterranean, primarily modern Lebanon and the Syria, Syrian ...

, the eastern one by those bound for

Damascus Damascus ( , ; ) is the capital and List of largest cities in the Levant region by population, largest city of Syria. It is the oldest capital in the world and, according to some, the fourth Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. Kno ...

and places further north. The pass exiting near Yokneam follows in its final part a valley called in Arabic

Wadi Milh Wadi ( ; ) is a river valley or a wet (ephemeral) riverbed that contains water only when heavy rain occurs. Wadis are located on gently sloping, nearly flat parts of deserts; commonly they begin on the distal portions of alluvial fans and ext ...

, "Salt

Wadi Wadi ( ; ) is a river valley or a wet (ephemerality, ephemeral) Stream bed, riverbed that contains water only when heavy rain occurs. Wadis are located on gently sloping, nearly flat parts of deserts; commonly they begin on the distal portion ...

" (unsuccessfully Hebraised to Nahal Yokne'am). Another major route, the hill road that went along the ridge of the

Judean Judea or Judaea (; ; , ; ) is a mountainous region of the Levant. Traditionally dominated by the city of Jerusalem, it is now part of Palestine and Israel. The name's usage is historic, having been used in antiquity and still into the prese ...

and

Samarian Mountains Samaria (), the Hellenized form of the Hebrew name Shomron (), is used as a historical and biblical name for the central region of the Land of Israel. It is bordered by Judea to the south and Galilee to the north. The region is known to the ...

, split once it reached the Jezreel Valley, with one continuation heading towards the sea along the foot of the northeastern slopes of the Manasseh Heights and the Carmel, via both Megiddo and Yokneam. In modern terms, the ridge road or "Way of the Patriarchs" largely corresponds to

Highway 60 The following highways are numbered 60: International * Asian Highway 60 * European route E60 Australia * Bruxner Highway * Dawson Highway (Rolleston to Gladstone) – Queensland State Route 60 Brazil * BR-060 Canada * Alberta Highway 60 ...

, the ancient route connecting it via

Ta'anakh The Ta'anakh region (, ''Hevel Ta'anakh''), also known as Ta'anachim (), is an area to the south of Israel's Jezreel Valley and east of the Wadi Ara region. The area is named after the biblical city (Joshua 17:11), located just across the Green ...

, Megiddo, and Yokneam with the coast is now followed by the

Jenin Jenin ( ; , ) is a city in the West Bank, Palestine, and is the capital of the Jenin Governorate. It is a hub for the surrounding towns. Jenin came under Israeli occupied territories, Israeli occupation in 1967, and was put under the administra ...

Haifa Haifa ( ; , ; ) is the List of cities in Israel, third-largest city in Israel—after Jerusalem and Tel Aviv—with a population of in . The city of Haifa forms part of the Haifa metropolitan area, the third-most populous metropolitan area i ...

road ( Highway 66 for the first section), and the pass road entering the Jezreel Valley at Yokneam is now Highway 70. Only the main seaport connected to Yokneam isn't Acre ('Akko) anymore, but Haifa south of it. This location, at the crossroads of significant trade routes, is the main reason for Yokneam's continuous settlement over some four millennia. Approximately north and south respectively are Tel Qashish and

, other village sites believed to have been dependencies of Yokneam.

History and archaeology

The earliest traces of human settlement found at Tel Yokneam are from the

period (4500–3300

). They consist only of a few cone-shaped vessels and jar handles. No architectural features can be attributed to the chalcolithic settlement, if one existed. Unexcavated areas of the site may hold more significant remains of this period, as excavations to date have reached bedrock in a very limited location only.

Early Bronze Age

A diverse range of pottery from this period has been found, in pockets of fill sitting on the bedrock of the tel. Finds include bowls, platters, cooking pots, and jars that date from the entire period (3300–2100 BCE). A

cylinder seal A cylinder seal is a small round cylinder, typically about one inch (2 to 3 cm) in width, engraved with written characters or figurative scenes or both, used in ancient times to roll an impression onto a two-dimensional surface, generally ...

with a geometric motif, and a stamped seal were also found. Most of the finds correspond to the Early

layer of the nearby Tel Qashish. An Egyptian vessel made of

diorite Diorite ( ) is an intrusive rock, intrusive igneous rock formed by the slow cooling underground of magma (molten rock) that has a moderate content of silica and a relatively low content of alkali metals. It is Intermediate composition, inter ...

, was discovered on top of the mound in the 1930s. It has been dated to the late stages of the

First Dynasty of Egypt The First Dynasty of ancient Egypt (Dynasty I) covers the first series of Egyptian kings to rule over a unified Egypt. It immediately follows the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt, by Menes, or Narmer, and marks the beginning of the Early Dy ...

or early stages of the

Second Dynasty The Second Dynasty of ancient Egypt (or Dynasty II, – ) is the latter of the two dynasties of the Egyptian Archaic Period, when the seat of government was centred at Thinis. It is most known for its last ruler, Khasekhemwy, but is otherwis ...

, sometime in the first half of the third millennium BCE. No architectural features attributed to the Early Bronze Age have been unearthed during excavations on the site.Amnon Ben-Tor, There is a gap in the archaeological record of at least a century between the Early Bronze Age and later remains. ''Yoqne'am III'' pp. 3–7

Middle Bronze Age

The Middle Bronze Age remains at Tel Yokneam were found directly on the limestone bedrock. ''Yoqne'am III'', pp. 11–16 In the Middle Bronze, Yokneam can be divided into Strata XXV–XXI, with the earliest architectural remains uncovered dating to MB IIA. Form strata XXIV (MB IIA) to the end of MB IIB, Yoqneam was fortified with three successive fortifications systems. The city was unfortified in the MB IIC (Stratum XXI).

Early settlement and burial cave

Underneath the wall of Yokneam which was constructed sometime before between the 20th and 18th century BCE, a layer of burnet mudbrick material (different than the material used in the later period) mixed with potsherds, bones and ash. It appears that these are the remains of structures made out of mudbrick. The presence of ash and the skeleton of a young male may indicate that this settlement was violently destroyed by fire. Around these remains were two openings to a burial cave. The settlement and burial cave are dated to the Middle Bronze Age IIA period (2000–1800 BCE). The burial cave was cut in the soft limestone. It had at least three chambers, of them two were excavated. It was accessed by the excavators through holes in the ceiling of each chamber. No other entrance was discovered because of the limitations of the excavation but it is possible it was accessed through a shaft. The opinings may also provide ventilation and lighting. One of the chambers had two niches with a skeletons of a young female aged 20–25 and one aged 14–15. Next to the burials were offerings and the older female had a stone "pillow" under her skull. The other chamber was filled with soil containing potsherds and the complete skeleton of a sheep. This burial cave is unique in its shape and in the burial goods found inside of it. The burial in niches is more common in later periods but considered very rare in the Middle Bronze Age. Three other examples exist in Tel Amr, Tirat Ha-Carmel and mostly in Tel Te'enim. All of these sites, including Yokneam are located in the western part of the Jezreel Valley and the adjacent northern coastal plain. It is possible that those who were buried in those niches were people of a high status (religious, social or economic).

Fortified city

Yokneam was a fortified city from around 1900–1650 BCE. The fortifications were built on top of the burial cave, sealing one of its entrances. During this period, three different fortification systems were built. The first two of these were massive constructions of

mudbrick Mudbrick or mud-brick, also known as unfired brick, is an air-dried brick, made of a mixture of mud (containing loam, clay, sand and water) mixed with a binding material such as rice husks or straw. Mudbricks are known from 9000 BCE. From ...

on a stone base, with a

glacis A glacis (, ) in military engineering is an artificial slope as part of a medieval castle or in early modern fortresses. They may be constructed of earth as a temporary structure or of stone in more permanent structure. More generally, a glaci ...

built into their outer face. The third fortification, dating to between 1750 and 1650 BCE, was less significant. A period of the site's history during which the city was unfortified began in the final years of the Middle Bronze Age, and lasted well into the Iron Age. In the first unfortified settlement phase, between 1650 and 1550 BCE, inhabitants buried the dead, particularly children, under the floors of houses in

burial jars Jar burial is a human burial custom where the corpse is placed into a large earthenware container and then interred. Jar burials are a repeated pattern at a site or within an archaeological culture. When an anomalous burial is found in which a co ...

Ben-Tor, 1987, p. 4 or tombs, with offerings laid beside the bodies. One notable offering was an artistic vessel in the shape of what appears to be a donkey, from whose mouth liquid could be poured. A layer of dirt fill separates the Middle and Late Bronze Age phases on the site. The settlement above that fill presents a completely new urban plan compared to that of the earlier habitation. In an assemblage from a later period, a beetle stamp was found on a bowl bearing the name of Pharaoh

Amenemhat III :''See Amenemhat, for other individuals with this name.'' Amenemhat III (Ancient Egyptian: ''Ỉmn-m-hꜣt'' meaning 'Amun is at the forefront'), also known as Amenemhet III, was a pharaoh of ancient Egypt and the sixth king of the Twelfth Dyn ...

, who reigned from 1860 to 1814 BCE. His reign is regarded as the golden age of the

Middle Kingdom of Egypt The Middle Kingdom of Egypt (also known as The Period of Reunification) is the period in the history of ancient Egypt following a period of political division known as the First Intermediate Period of Egypt, First Intermediate Period. The Middl ...

Late Bronze Age

Late Bronze Age Yokneam lasted from the 15th to the 13th century BCE. The well-preserved houses excavated from this period contained an abundance of pottery, including a collection of

Chocolate-on-white ware Chocolate-on-White ware is the description commonly given to an important diagnostic ceramic type of Bronze Age Southern Levant. It is characterized by a white slip and dark-brown or black decorations on it. Often it is also classified as ''bichrom ...

. Some of these artifacts were imports from foreign lands, including

Cyprus Cyprus (), officially the Republic of Cyprus, is an island country in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Situated in West Asia, its cultural identity and geopolitical orientation are overwhelmingly Southeast European. Cyprus is the List of isl ...

and

Mycenae Mycenae ( ; ; or , ''Mykē̂nai'' or ''Mykḗnē'') is an archaeological site near Mykines, Greece, Mykines in Argolis, north-eastern Peloponnese, Greece. It is located about south-west of Athens; north of Argos, Peloponnese, Argos; and sou ...

. Two Egyptian tools were found, although it is not clear whether these are originals or locally-made copies. Silver earrings, typical of the

Mitanni Mitanni (–1260 BC), earlier called Ḫabigalbat in old Babylonian texts, ; Hanigalbat or Hani-Rabbat in Assyrian records, or in Ancient Egypt, Egyptian texts, was a Hurrian language, Hurrian-speaking state in northern Syria (region), Syria an ...

culture, were also found. Amarna letter- Royal Letter from Abi-milku of Tyre to the king of Egypt MET 24

The city is mentioned as "En-qn'mu" in the list of cities conquered by Pharaoh

during his campaign in the 15th century BCE. Archaeological finds confirm that the city was devastated during the early years of the Late Bronze Age (1550–1400 BCE), with subsequent rebuilding after a gap in occupation. A figurine of the Egyptian goddess

Hathor Hathor (, , , Meroitic language, Meroitic: ') was a major ancient Egyptian deities, goddess in ancient Egyptian religion who played a wide variety of roles. As a sky deity, she was the mother or consort of the sky god Horus and the sun god R ...

from that period was found. Late Bronze Age Yokneam may be identified with one of the city-states mentioned in the Amarna letters (1360–1332 BCE). A

petrographic Petrography is a branch of petrology that focuses on detailed descriptions of rocks. Someone who studies petrography is called a petrographer. The mineral content and the textural relationships within the rock are described in detail. The classi ...

study of the letters suggests that Yokneam was a city-state, and that one of its kings was called Ba'lu-mehir (''mehir'' is a

West Semitic The West Semitic languages are a proposed major sub-grouping of Semitic languages. The term was first coined in 1883 by Fritz Hommel. Ba'lu-mehir was summoned to Megiddo along with King

Labaya Labaya (Labayu or Lib'ayu) was the ruler of Shechem and warlord in the central hill country of southern Canaan during the Amarna Period (c. 1350 BC). He lived contemporaneously with Pharaoh Akhenaten. Labaya is mentioned in several of the Amarna L ...

of the city of

Shechem Shechem ( ; , ; ), also spelled Sichem ( ; ) and other variants, was an ancient city in the southern Levant. Mentioned as a Canaanite city in the Amarna Letters, it later appears in the Hebrew Bible as the first capital of the Kingdom of Israe ...

, who was accused by Egypt of acts of aggression against other kingdoms. Ba'lu-mehir was probably an ally of his.

Destruction

Archaeological investigations suggest that the city was destroyed in a large fire sometime between the second half of the 13th century BCE and the beginning of the 12th century BCE. Ben-Tor, 1987, p.5 Late Bronze Age Yokneam's destruction by fire, as with many other

Ancient Near East The ancient Near East was home to many cradles of civilization, spanning Mesopotamia, Egypt, Iran (or Persia), Anatolia and the Armenian highlands, the Levant, and the Arabian Peninsula. As such, the fields of ancient Near East studies and Nea ...

ern cities, occurred during a period known as the

, which marks the transition from the Bronze to the Iron Age. Ceramic evidence does not permit precise dating of the razing of the city, which occurred between 1350 and 1200 BCE.

Iron Age

Following its destruction at the end of the Bronze Age, the city was rebuilt somewhere between the 12th and the early 11th centuries BCE. It appears that the reconstruction took place within a few decades, as the new structures followed the alignment of the old buildings. The

city has three distinct periods. In the first, the majority of finds were locally-made

Canaan CanaanThe current scholarly edition of the Septuagint, Greek Old Testament spells the word without any accents, cf. Septuaginta : id est Vetus Testamentum graece iuxta LXX interprets. 2. ed. / recogn. et emendavit Robert Hanhart. Stuttgart : D ...

ite tools and pottery, characteristic of the Late Bronze Age, although some artifacts of

n and

Philistine Philistines (; Septuagint, LXX: ; ) were ancient people who lived on the south coast of Canaan during the Iron Age in a confederation of city-states generally referred to as Philistia. There is compelling evidence to suggest that the Philist ...

origin were also found. Ben-Tor, 1987, p. 7 One notable structure of that period is known as the "House of Oil", as the tools and olive pits found in it indicate it was an

oil mill An oil mill is a grinding mill designed to crush or bruise oil-bearing seeds, such as linseed or peanuts, or other oil-rich vegetable material, such as olives or the fruit of the oil palm, which can then be pressed to extract vegetable oils, whi ...

. The house is connected to a cave, in which the residents buried their dead. Ben-Tor, 1987, p. 6 Tel-Yokneam-373

The destruction of Yokneam in the Late Bronze Age, and its establishment during the Iron Age I period, can be associated with the conquests of the

Israelites Israelites were a Hebrew language, Hebrew-speaking ethnoreligious group, consisting of tribes that lived in Canaan during the Iron Age. Modern scholarship describes the Israelites as emerging from indigenous Canaanites, Canaanite populations ...

under

. Yokneam is mentioned three times in the

Hebrew Bible The Hebrew Bible or Tanakh (;"Tanach"
. '' Book of Joshua The Book of Joshua is the sixth book in the Hebrew Bible and the Old Testament, and is the first book of the Deuteronomistic history, the story of Israel from the conquest of Canaan to the Babylonian captivity, Babylonian exile. It tells of the ...

. It first appears in a list of thirty-one city-states defeated by

and the Israelites, which may explain the destruction of the Late Bronze Age city. Later, it is mentioned as a city in the territory of the

Tribe of Zebulun According to the Hebrew Bible, the Tribe of Zebulun (alternatively rendered as ''Zabulon, Zabulin, Zabulun, Zebulon''; ) was one of the twelve tribes of Israel. Following the completion of the conquest of Canaan by the Israelite tribes in the Boo ...

, settled by members of the

Merarite The Merarites were one of the four main divisions among the Levites in Biblical times. The Bible claims that the Merarites were all descended from the eponymous Merari, a son of Levi, although some biblical scholars regard this as a postdictional ...

clan of the

. Despite the biblical account, on the basis of Phoenician and Philistine pottery finds, archaeologists have theorized that the city was rebuilt by the Canaanites with the help of the Phoenicians and Philistines in order to block Israelite access to the

trade route. The destruction of this settlement phase may be attributed to the conquests of the

Israelite Israelites were a Hebrew language, Hebrew-speaking ethnoreligious group, consisting of tribes that lived in Canaan during the Iron Age. Modern scholarship describes the Israelites as emerging from indigenous Canaanites, Canaanite populations ...

King

David David (; , "beloved one") was a king of ancient Israel and Judah and the third king of the United Monarchy, according to the Hebrew Bible and Old Testament. The Tel Dan stele, an Aramaic-inscribed stone erected by a king of Aram-Dam ...

. For several decades the city was in a very poor state, until its rebuilding in the 10th century BCE. At that time, a fortification was built, using stones mined and imported from the nearby

. A drainage system was installed to protect the fortifications from the rain. The wall reached a height of at least . Yokneam was razed and resettled again in the 9th century BCE. Ben-Tor, 1987, p. 8 The most probable reason for the destruction was the invasion of

, under King

, who reigned from 842 to 796 BCE. The city was rebuilt during the occupation. The new city had a double-wall defense system. The city's Iron Age fortifications were much stronger than those of nearby

because of Yokneam's location on the border between the Kingdom of Israel and

. The end of this period in the city's history came with the

Assyria Assyria (Neo-Assyrian cuneiform: , ''māt Aššur'') was a major ancient Mesopotamian civilization that existed as a city-state from the 21st century BC to the 14th century BC and eventually expanded into an empire from the 14th century BC t ...

n invasion under king Tiglath-Pileser III, in 732 BCE. At the time of this occupation, Yokneam was one of the largest cities in the

. After this phase only a small settlement remained, and the fortifications were no longer in use. The identity of its inhabitants between the end of the 8th century BCE and the 7th century BCE is unknown.

Persian and Hellenistic periods

The Assyrian Empire fell to the

Neo-Babylonian Empire The Neo-Babylonian Empire or Second Babylonian Empire, historically known as the Chaldean Empire, was the last polity ruled by monarchs native to ancient Mesopotamia. Beginning with the coronation of Nabopolassar as the King of Babylon in 626 BC a ...

, which in turn fell to the

Achaemenid Empire The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenian Empire, also known as the Persian Empire or First Persian Empire (; , , ), was an Iranian peoples, Iranian empire founded by Cyrus the Great of the Achaemenid dynasty in 550 BC. Based in modern-day Iran, i ...

under

Cyrus the Great Cyrus II of Persia ( ; 530 BC), commonly known as Cyrus the Great, was the founder of the Achaemenid Empire. Achaemenid dynasty (i. The clan and dynasty) Hailing from Persis, he brought the Achaemenid dynasty to power by defeating the Media ...

in 539 BCE. The

Levant The Levant ( ) is the subregion that borders the Eastern Mediterranean, Eastern Mediterranean sea to the west, and forms the core of West Asia and the political term, Middle East, ''Middle East''. In its narrowest sense, which is in use toda ...

, and Yokneam with it, came under Persian rule. Although Yokneam does not appear in any sources from the Persian period, it was an unfortified city at that time. The remains of a settlement from the Persian period, badly damaged by later construction, include several structures built on terraces. 70% of the pottery identified there consisted of storage jars, indicating that the area studied was the city's storage area. A comparative study of the pottery from this period indicates that the site was settled somewhere around the late 5th century BCE, but this study relies on the small quantity of pottery found in Yokneam. Cimadevilla (2005), p. 421 At some point, the structures were modified and the terraces were destroyed. The structures featured Phoenician-style architecture, which was quite common during that period. Personal names on pottery, written in

Aramaic Aramaic (; ) is a Northwest Semitic language that originated in the ancient region of Syria and quickly spread to Mesopotamia, the southern Levant, Sinai, southeastern Anatolia, and Eastern Arabia, where it has been continually written a ...

, include names of Hebrew, Persian, and Phoenician origin, indicating that Yokneam was a cosmopolitan city during the Persian period. Signs of a large fire are seen in one of the structures, where complete storage jars were found. This suggests the settlement's sudden destruction by fire. After this event, the site seems to have been partially or completely abandoned. Only a few pits remained. This violent destruction may be attributed to conflicts between the Persians and the Egyptians over the control of the land, and can be dated to 380 BCE. The mound remained deserted until the

Macedonian Macedonian most often refers to someone or something from or related to Macedonia. Macedonian(s) may refer to: People Modern * Macedonians (ethnic group), a nation and a South Slavic ethnic group primarily associated with North Macedonia * Mac ...

ruler

Alexander the Great Alexander III of Macedon (; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), most commonly known as Alexander the Great, was a king of the Ancient Greece, ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia (ancient kingdom), Macedon. He succeeded his father Philip ...

defeated Persia, conquering the region in 333 BCE. The pottery record indicates that the site was populated almost a century after the conquest, between the end of the 3rd century and the late 2nd century BCE. ''Yoqne'am I'', pp. 59 Over 20 jar-handles with stamps were found among the Hellenistic artifacts, dating to between 250 and 125 BCE. One stamp may be dated to the late 3rd century BCE, establishing an even earlier Hellenic presence. The walls of a large structure were discovered, with most of the building eroded down the slope. A more notable discovery was a square

watchtower A watchtower or guardtower (also spelt watch tower, guard tower) is a type of military/paramilitary or policiary tower used for guarding an area. Sometimes fortified, and armed with heavy weaponry, especially historically, the structures are ...

, overlooking the junction below the mound. Its base measured . Some Hellenistic pottery was discovered on the northeastern slope of the mound. Pottery found in another building on the mound's eastern slope dated that structure to the Hellenistic period also. Among the potsherds were fragments of wine jars from the island of

Rhodes Rhodes (; ) is the largest of the Dodecanese islands of Greece and is their historical capital; it is the List of islands in the Mediterranean#By area, ninth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea. Administratively, the island forms a separ ...

. Ben-Tor, 1987, p. 9 Yokneam seems to have been sparsely populated during the Hellenistic period. The main settlement between the Hellenistic and Byzantine periods was apparently on the hill south of the mound, on which the first the modern-day town of

is built. This conclusion is based on frequent finds of artifacts and remains from those periods during construction activity in this area. ''Yoqne'am I'', p. 13

Roman and Byzantine periods

Along with the rest of the region, Yokneam came under Roman rule in 63 BCE. Potsherds are the only artifacts dated to the Roman period that have been found in the main excavation area at Tel Yokneam. Roman structures have, however, been identified below the later Byzantine and Crusader church. Some walls were attributed to the Early Roman period because of pottery found beside them. ''Yoqne'am I'', p. 32 These artifacts include a cup fragment, a bowl, a

krater A krater or crater (, ; , ) was a large two-handled type of vase in Pottery of ancient Greece, Ancient Greek pottery and metalwork, mostly used for the mixing of wine with water. Form and function At a Greek symposium, kraters were placed in ...

, a cooking pot, an

oil lamp An oil lamp is a lamp used to produce light continuously for a period of time using an oil-based fuel source. The use of oil lamps began thousands of years ago and continues to this day, although their use is less common in modern times. The ...

, and

amphora An amphora (; ; English ) is a type of container with a pointed bottom and characteristic shape and size which fit tightly (and therefore safely) against each other in storage rooms and packages, tied together with rope and delivered by land ...

e, dating from between 50 BCE and 150 CE. An underground room discovered under the church was identified as a Roman

mausoleum A mausoleum is an external free-standing building constructed as a monument enclosing the burial chamber of a deceased person or people. A mausoleum without the person's remains is called a cenotaph. A mausoleum may be considered a type o ...

. It was dated to the Late Roman period, based on a

sarcophagus A sarcophagus (: sarcophagi or sarcophaguses) is a coffin, most commonly carved in stone, and usually displayed above ground, though it may also be buried. The word ''sarcophagus'' comes from the Greek language, Greek wikt:σάρξ, σάρξ ...

found among the building materials of the church, and on other Roman-like building features. One interpretation is that the church-builders discovered the mausoleum, cleared it of its contents, and reused elements from it as building materials. The considerable quantity of pottery found suggests occupation of the site during the Late Roman period. Five Roman coins were found, ranging in date between 20 and 354 CE.

Eusebius of Caesarea Eusebius of Caesarea (30 May AD 339), also known as Eusebius Pamphilius, was a historian of Christianity, exegete, and Christian polemicist from the Roman province of Syria Palaestina. In about AD 314 he became the bishop of Caesarea Maritima. ...

included biblical Yokneam in his ''

'' in the 3rd century CE, writing that in his own time it was a village called Cammona, "situated in the great plain, six Roman miles north of

Legio Legio was a Roman military camp south of Tel Megiddo in the Roman province of Galilee. History Following the Bar Kokhba revolt (132-136 CE), Legio VI Ferrata was stationed at Legio near Caparcotna. The approximate location of the camp of the L ...

, on the way to Ptolemais".Robinson, 1856
p. 115.
/ref> A Byzantine church, built between the 4th and 7th centuries CE, was found below the ruins of a later Crusader church. It was built, in turn, on top of the Roman mausoleum. The church may originally have been built as the burial place of a saint. It was probably destroyed somewhere around the 7th century, during the Persian or Islamic conquests. Beneath a later Ottoman fortress were two pits, sealed off by a door, which contained many potsherds from the early Byzantine period.

Early Islamic period

In 634–636 CE, the

Islam Islam is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the Quran, and the teachings of Muhammad. Adherents of Islam are called Muslims, who are estimated to number Islam by country, 2 billion worldwide and are the world ...

Rashidun Caliphate The Rashidun Caliphate () is a title given for the reigns of first caliphs (lit. "successors") — Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali collectively — believed to Political aspects of Islam, represent the perfect Islam and governance who led the ...

won the region from the

Byzantine Empire The Byzantine Empire, also known as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the Roman Empire centred on Constantinople during late antiquity and the Middle Ages. Having survived History of the Roman Empire, the events that caused the ...

. Although not mentioned in sources, Yokneam at that time was a well-planned, unfortified city, with a street system and symmetrical buildings constructed on terraces. The city was established during the second half of the 9th century CE, probably during the rule of

Ahmad ibn Tulun Ahmad ibn Tulun (; c. 20 September 835 – 10 May 884) was the founder of the Tulunid dynasty that ruled Egypt in the Middle Ages, Egypt and Bilad al-Sham, Syria between 868 and 905. Originally a Turkic peoples, Turkic slave-soldier, in 868 Ibn ...

, who united Egypt, Syria, and the Levant in 878 CE. The Egyptian rulers consolidated their control over the country, which was subject to political instability. This period in the site's history is unique. The settlement's layout, the orientation of its buildings, the architecture and construction methods differ not only from the preceding and succeeding phases of occupation but from any other settlement period. This may reflect the fact that a city had not existed on the site since the end of the Persian period, some 1000 years earlier. The houses were built using local stone, rather than material imported from nearby

as in previous periods; an observation common to this and later periods. According to the evidence of pottery and glassware finds, the city was gradually abandoned. A major earthquake in 1033 CE is known to have devastated the region, and signs of an earthquake can be observed in the remains of the settlement. The settlement appears to have been finally abandoned sometime during the 11th century. Ceramics from this period are some of the most luxurious of their time. Ben-Tor, 1987, p. 10

Crusader and Mamluk periods

Historical record

After the

, Yokneam was included in the newly established

Frankish Frankish may refer to: * Franks, a Germanic tribe and their culture ** Frankish language or its modern descendants, Franconian languages, a group of Low Germanic languages also commonly referred to as "Frankish" varieties * Francia, a post-Roman ...

Kingdom of Jerusalem The Kingdom of Jerusalem, also known as the Crusader Kingdom, was one of the Crusader states established in the Levant immediately after the First Crusade. It lasted for almost two hundred years, from the accession of Godfrey of Bouillon in 1 ...

. It appears in Latin sources for the first time in a decree issued by

Pope Paschal II Pope Paschal II (; 1050 1055 – 21 January 1118), born Raniero Raineri di Bleda, was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 13 August 1099 to his death in 1118. A monk of the Abbey of Cluny, he was creat ...

. The decree stated that Yokneam, under the name Caimum, belonged to the

monastery of Mount Tabor The Abbey of Mount Tabor was a Benedictine monastery on the shrine of Christ's Transfiguration on Mount Tabor in the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Background Christian tradition has identified Mount Tabor in Galilee as the site of the miraculous Transf ...

. It was possibly still in Muslim hands at that time, as was the case for most of the places listed. It is likely that King

Baldwin I of Jerusalem Baldwin I (1060s – 2 April 1118) was the first count of Edessa from 1098 to 1100 and king of Jerusalem from 1100 to his death in 1118. He was the youngest son of Eustace II, Count of Boulogne, and Ida of Lorraine and married a Norman noblew ...

took Yokneam during his campaign against

Acre The acre ( ) is a Unit of measurement, unit of land area used in the Imperial units, British imperial and the United States customary units#Area, United States customary systems. It is traditionally defined as the area of one Chain (unit), ch ...

in 1104, and it is unclear whether the monastery of Mount Tabor had previously owned the land. Yokneam is mentioned again, as "Caymont", in a charter issued by King

Baldwin IV of Jerusalem Baldwin IV (1161–1185), known as the Leper King, was the king of Jerusalem from 1174 until his death in 1185. He was admired by historians and his contemporaries for his dedication to the Kingdom of Jerusalem in the face of his debilitating ...

on 24 February 1182 granting a

fief A fief (; ) was a central element in medieval contracts based on feudal law. It consisted of a form of property holding or other rights granted by an overlord to a vassal, who held it in fealty or "in fee" in return for a form of feudal alle ...

consisting of a few shops in Acre and 480 acres of land in the territory of Caymont (''"territorio de Caimont"'') to

Joscelin III Joscelin III (c. 1139 – after 1190) was the titular count of Edessa, who during his lifetime managed to amass enough land to establish a lordship in the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Early life Joscelin III was the son of Joscelin II and Beatr ...

. By that time, Caymont was probably a

lordship A lordship is a territory held by a lord. It was a landed estate that served as the lowest administrative and judicial unit in rural areas. It originated as a unit under the feudal system during the Middle Ages. In a lordship, the functions of eco ...

. The territory did not exceed . No other settlements on its lands are known today. Kedar, ''Yoqne'am I'', 1996, p. 4 After

Saladin Salah ad-Din Yusuf ibn Ayyub ( – 4 March 1193), commonly known as Saladin, was the founder of the Ayyubid dynasty. Hailing from a Kurdish family, he was the first sultan of both Egypt and Syria. An important figure of the Third Crusade, h ...

defeated the armies of the

at the

Battle of Hattin The Battle of Hattin took place on 4 July 1187, between the Crusader states of the Levant and the forces of the Ayyubid sultan Saladin. It is also known as the Battle of the Horns of Hattin, due to the shape of the nearby extinct volcano of ...

in 1187, the Frankish city of Caymont fell into the hands of the Islamic

Ayyubid dynasty The Ayyubid dynasty (), also known as the Ayyubid Sultanate, was the founding dynasty of the medieval Sultan of Egypt, Sultanate of Egypt established by Saladin in 1171, following his abolition of the Fatimid Caliphate, Fatimid Caliphate of Egyp ...

. The city was notable enough to be mentioned in the two detailed accounts recorded. One of these states that the site, along with others in the region, was plundered by the conquerors.

Imad ad-Din al-Isfahani Muhammad ibn Hamid (; 1125 – 20 June 1201), commonly known as Imad al-Din al-Isfahani (), was a historian, scholar, and rhetorician. He left a valuable anthology of Arabic poetry to accompany his many historical workshttp://www.crusades-encyc ...

, Saladin's secretary, wrote that upon the fall of La Fève, Caymont surrendered like other Frankish localities. In January 1188, some of Saladin's men proposed destruction of the Crusaders' main coastal stronghold of Acre, to prevent the Crusaders from reconquering and re-establishing it. Caymont, known by the Muslims as "Qaymun", would be preserved and made the region's principal Muslim stronghold. Qaymun was considered a good choice because it was close enough to the sea, but far enough to thwart naval attacks. Ultimately, however, Saladin decided to fortify Acre instead. Kedar, ''Yoqne'am I'', 1996, p. 5 During the

Third Crusade The Third Crusade (1189–1192) was an attempt led by King Philip II of France, King Richard I of England and Emperor Frederick Barbarossa to reconquer the Holy Land following the capture of Jerusalem by the Ayyubid sultan Saladin in 1187. F ...

, Qaymun was mentioned again when Saladin sent his property to Qaymun and

Nazareth Nazareth is the largest Cities in Israel, city in the Northern District (Israel), Northern District of Israel. In its population was . Known as "the Arab capital of Israel", Nazareth serves as a cultural, political, religious, economic and ...

during the

Siege of Acre Siege of Acre, also Siege of Akka/Akko, may refer to: *Siege of Acre (1104), following the First Crusade *Siege of Acre (1189–1191), during the Third Crusade *Siege of Acre (1257–1258), during the War of Saint Sabas *Siege of Acre (1263), Baiba ...

. As soon as the Crusaders began their march towards

Jaffa Jaffa (, ; , ), also called Japho, Joppa or Joppe in English, is an ancient Levantine Sea, Levantine port city which is part of Tel Aviv, Tel Aviv-Yafo, Israel, located in its southern part. The city sits atop a naturally elevated outcrop on ...

on 22 August 1191, Saladin began marching on a parallel inland course. He camped in Qaymun for one day, on 24 August 1191. That his army set up tents there suggests that the Frankish castle was already in ruins. The Treaty of Jaffa, which ended the Third Crusade when it was signed on 2 September 1192, gave Qaymun and its lands to

Balian of Ibelin Balian of Ibelin (; ), also known as Barisan the Younger, was a Crusades, crusader noble of the Kingdom of Jerusalem in the 12th century. He was Vassals of the Kingdom of Jerusalem#Lordship of Ibelin, Lord of Ibelin from 1170 to 1193. As the ...

, a prominent Frankish leader. Nothing is known of Balian's doings in Caymont, but as he was a prominent leader it is plausible that he made a significant contribution to the site. After the initial Crusader victory at

Damietta Damietta ( ' ) is a harbor, port city and the capital of the Damietta Governorate in Egypt. It is located at the Damietta branch, an eastern distributary of the Nile Delta, from the Mediterranean Sea, and about north of Cairo. It was a Cath ...

, the Franks of Acre attempted to attack the Muslims, but were defeated near Caymont by the sultan of Damascus,

Al-Mu'azzam Isa () (1176 – 1227) was the Ayyubid Kurdish emir of Damascus from 1218 to 1227. The son of Sultan al-Adil I and nephew of Saladin, founder of the dynasty, al-Mu'azzam was installed by his father as governor of Damascus in 1198 or 1200. After his f ...

. In a treaty signed during the

Seventh Crusade The Seventh Crusade (1248–1254) was the first of the two Crusades led by Louis IX of France. Also known as the Crusade of Louis IX to the Holy Land, it aimed to reclaim the Holy Land by attacking Egypt, the main seat of Muslim power in the Nea ...

, Caymont is listed among the castles that remained in Frankish hands. A lord of Caymont mentioned in 1253, Aymarri, is its last known lord. In 1256,

Pope Alexander IV Pope Alexander IV (1199 or 1185 – 25 May 1261) was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 12 December 1254 to his death. Early career He was born as Rinaldo di Jenne in Jenne, Italy, Jenne (now in the Province of Rome ...

gave the destroyed monastery of Tabor, which included Caymont, to the

Knights Hospitaller The Order of Knights of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem, commonly known as the Knights Hospitaller (), is a Catholic military order. It was founded in the crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem in the 12th century and had headquarters there ...

. An ownership dispute between the Hospitallers and the

Knights Templar The Poor Fellow-Soldiers of Christ and of the Temple of Solomon, mainly known as the Knights Templar, was a Military order (religious society), military order of the Catholic Church, Catholic faith, and one of the most important military ord ...

was resolved in May 1262, the Templars winning the territory. It is likely that Caymont was attacked by the Islamic Mamluk sultan

Baibars Al-Malik al-Zahir Rukn al-Din Baybars al-Bunduqdari (; 1223/1228 – 1 July 1277), commonly known as Baibars or Baybars () and nicknamed Abu al-Futuh (, ), was the fourth Mamluk sultan of Egypt and Syria, of Turkic Kipchak origin, in the Ba ...

sometime between 1263 and 1266. In 1283, the territory was in the possession of

Al-Mansur Qalawun (, – November 10, 1290) was the seventh Turkic Bahri Mamluk sultan of Egypt; he ruled from 1279 to 1290. He was called (, "Qalāwūn the Victorious"). After having risen in power in the Mamluk court and elite circles, Qalawun eventually hel ...

, the Mamluk sultan of Egypt and Syria.Runciman, 1987, p. 86
/ref>

Archaeological findings

There is a 100-year break in the archaeological record between the Early Islamic phase and Yokneam's Crusader period in the early 12th century. The Crusader's city was fortified, and probably the largest settlement on the site since the Iron Age. Structures were found in all of the excavation areas. The fortification system featured a

rampart Rampart may refer to: * Rampart (fortification), a defensive wall or bank around a castle, fort or settlement Rampart may also refer to: * LAPD Rampart Division, a division of the Los Angeles Police Department ** Rampart scandal, a blanket ter ...

supported by a retaining wall, and a drainage system to protect it from the weather. A large building with a kitchen, and a big public building were identified beside the wall. Significant public structures in the south included the city gate, a fort, and a church. The fort occupies 15% of the entire available area of the mound. It was several stories high, with watchtowers at its corners. The castle is attributed to King

, who reigned between 1100 and 1118 CE. The church was built on top of the earlier Byzantine church. A crusader tower was found, with foundations on the hill's bedrock. The tower connects with the city wall, and its ruins still stand high. A residential complex was found between the church and the tower, with a courtyard featuring a

tabun oven A tabun oven, or simply tabun (also transliterated taboon, from the ), is a portable clay oven, shaped like a truncated cone. While all were made with a top opening, which could be used as a small stove top, some were made with an opening at the ...

and public toilets. The remains of a Mamluk settlement were found in the area of the church and beneath the Ottoman fortress. The Mamluks reused many elements of the early settlements. This is evident in the Mamluk pottery, found in assemblages as early as the Byzantine period. The Mamluks used the Crusader tower as a stable, and Mamluk ovens were found within the Crusader church. Ben-Tor, 1987, p.11 On the basis of the pottery found, it appears that Yokneam was under Mamluk occupation during the 14th century only. Tel-Yokneam-289

Ottoman period

During the

Ottoman–Mamluk War (1516–17) Ottoman–Mamluk War may refer to: * Ottoman–Mamluk War (1485–91) * Ottoman–Mamluk War (1516–17) See also * Egyptian–Ottoman War (disambiguation) {{disambiguation ...

, the Levant fell to the

Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire (), also called the Turkish Empire, was an empire, imperial realm that controlled much of Southeast Europe, West Asia, and North Africa from the 14th to early 20th centuries; it also controlled parts of southeastern Centr ...

. Records from the 18th century state that

Zahir al-Umar Zahir al-Umar al-Zaydani, alternatively spelled Dhaher el-OmarDAAHL Site Rec ...

, who ruled over

Galilee Galilee (; ; ; ) is a region located in northern Israel and southern Lebanon consisting of two parts: the Upper Galilee (, ; , ) and the Lower Galilee (, ; , ). ''Galilee'' encompasses the area north of the Mount Carmel-Mount Gilboa ridge and ...

in that century, built a fortress in Yokneam. Ottoman smoking pipes were found near the Crusader church, Ben-Tor, 1987, p. 12 and Ottoman pottery, probably displaced by rainwater, was found in several areas of the tel. These finds are quite meager, however, and archaeologist Amnon Ben-Tor has challenged this claim. Miriam Avissar, another archaeologist who has studied the site, believes that the fortress is indeed an Ottoman fortress, built by Zahir al-Umar in the 18th century and abandoned in the 19th century.

recorded a castle at Yokneam on a map he made in 1799 during

Napoleon Bonaparte Napoleon Bonaparte (born Napoleone di Buonaparte; 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821), later known by his regnal name Napoleon I, was a French general and statesman who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and led Military career ...

's 1798–1801

French campaign in Egypt and Syria The French invasion of Egypt and Syria (1798–1801) was a military expedition led by Napoleon Bonaparte during the French Revolutionary Wars. The campaign aimed to undermine British trade routes, expand French influence, and establish a ...

. The castle name is given as the Chateau d'El Kireh (Castle of Qira), probably deriving from the name of the nearby village of Qira.

Charles William Meredith van de Velde Charles William Meredith van de Velde (December 4, 1818, in Leeuwarden – 20 March 1898 in Menton) was a Dutch lieutenant-at-sea second class, painter, cartographer, honorary member of the Red Cross and missionary. Van der Velde attended the Na ...

described the site in 1854, noting ruins that included the foundations of a Christian church, and several large

vaulted In architecture, a vault (French ''voûte'', from Italian ''volta'') is a self-supporting arched form, usually of stone or brick, serving to cover a space with a ceiling or roof. As in building an arch, a temporary support is needed while ring ...

caves. Of the area he said: "It is now quite a deserted region. Here are no more armies, no more townspeople or villages; a single herd of goats watched by a few wild Arabs, was all that we met."Van de Velde, 1854, vol. 1, p
331

Claude Reignier Conder Claude Reignier Conder (29 December 1848, Cheltenham – 16 February 1910, Cheltenham) was an English soldier, explorer and antiquarian. He was a great-great-grandson of Louis-François Roubiliac and grandson of editor and author Josiah Conder ...

described the site in 1878 as a "huge Tell" with the remains of a "little Byzantine chapel" and a "small fort" built by Zahir al-Umar. He recounts two legends about this place: a

Samaritan Samaritans (; ; ; ), are an ethnoreligious group originating from the Hebrews and Israelites of the ancient Near East. They are indigenous to Samaria, a historical region of History of ancient Israel and Judah, ancient Israel and Judah that ...

legend that

camped here during the fight against the Canaanites; and a Christian legend that Lamech, the great-grandchild of

, murdered his own great grandfather here with an arrow. Conder understands the name "Cain Mons" (i.e.: Caymont) as a corruption of "Keimûn".

History of archaeological excavation

Tel Yokneam was first surveyed in 1878 by

of the

. It was later surveyed by Avner Raban, in the 1970s. In 1931, under the British Mandate, a group of prisoners tasked with removing stones from the mound discovered a

vessel from ancient Egypt. The main

at Tel Yokneam took place as part of the "Yoqne'am Regional Project", conducted by the Institute of Archaeology of the

in collaboration with the

. * 1977 Season: Headed by Amnon Ben-Tor (biblical period) and Renate Rosenthal (classical and later periods). Six areas (labeled A, B1, B2, C, D, and E) were opened. Four of these were on the lower terrace of the mound, aimed at finding the fortification system. Another two areas were dug on the upper terrace. The acropolis was not excavated. During this season, the Iron Age fortifications and the Crusader church were investigated. * 1978 Season: Headed by Ben-Tor. Excavations focused on the northwestern slope of the mound, with the aim of investigating settlement layers from the

medieval period In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the 5th to the late 15th centuries, similarly to the post-classical period of World history (field), global history. It began with the fall of the West ...

down to the Iron Age. Four layers were identified, dated to the Mamluk, Crusader, Persian, and Iron Age phases. The western section of the church, which had remained covered during the previous season, was revealed. * 1979 and 1981 Seasons: Headed by Ben-Tor. Work centered principally on the northwestern slope and the Iron Age fortifications. * 1984, 1985, and 1987 Seasons: Headed by Ben-Tor and Yuval Portugali. The Iron and Bronze Age layers were studied during these seasons. Excavation of the Crusader church continued during the 1987 season, revealing the presence of an earlier Byzantine church beneath. * 1988 Season: Headed by Ben-Tor. Excavations reached bedrock, identifying the site's earliest known traces, from the Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age. From July to October 1993, Miriam Avissar directed a dig on behalf of the Israel Antiquities Authority. Excavations uncovered the areas west of the church and the acropolis. Most of the structures found were dated to the period of the Crusades, buried under minor remains from the Ottoman and Mamluk periods. In March 2014, Nurit Feig of the Israel Antiquities Authority conducted a salvage excavation at the southeastern foot of the mound, ahead of the residential expansion of

Yokneam Moshava Yokneam () is a moshava in the Northern District of Israel. Located on the outskirts of the city of Yokneam Illit on the border of the Jezreel Valley and the Menashe Heights, it falls under the jurisdiction of the Megiddo Regional Council and i ...

. The remains of Iron Age dwellings dating from the 10th to 8th centuries BCE were discovered, adding to the impression that the Iron Age was Yokneam's "golden age".

Archaeological park

Tel Yokneam today is an archaeological and educational park, jointly managed by the municipality of

and the

(IAA). The park was created between 2007 and 2010, as a tel conservation project by the municipality and the IAA for the city's residents. Yokneam Illit's elementary and high school students took part in the project. The project involved creating a paved path from the foot to the top of the mound, circling its peak. The students set up ceramic blocks, each decorated with drawings and pictures representing a different historical period. The blocks are arranged chronologically on the path, advancing through history as the path climbs towards the mound's peak. At the top of the mound are four thematic stations. The first includes a pit representing the archaeological strata of the tel. The other stations, respectively, provide information about Yokneam as a city inhabited by the

; a model of the biblical city; and maps showing the site's relationship to the trade routes and other sites around it. Native oak trees were also planted at each station to provide shelter from the sun. In 2013, students reconstructed of the Iron Age fortification system. The park contains a visitor center with an exhibition of finds from Tel Yokneam. According to the center, the exhibition tells the story of ancient Yokneam from a historical, cultural, religious, and economic point of view. Among the finds displayed is a rare statue representing either the ruler or a noble of ancient Yokneam. The statue is dated to the 9th century BCE, the time of the northern Kingdom of Israel. It shows

n influence, and is the only one of its kind found in Israel to date. Also exhibited is a ritual vessel from the nearby Tel Qashish, dating from the Late Bronze Age. The visitor center was opened during

Passover Passover, also called Pesach (; ), is a major Jewish holidays, Jewish holiday and one of the Three Pilgrimage Festivals. It celebrates the Exodus of the Israelites from slavery in Biblical Egypt, Egypt. According to the Book of Exodus, God in ...

, 2019. At the opening ceremony, the future development plan for the archaeological park was revealed.

References

Bibliography

* Amnon Ben-Tor, Miriam Avissar, Ruhama Bonfil, Anabel Zarzecki-Peleg, Yuval Portugali (1987)
"''A Regional Study of Tel Yoqneʿam and Its Vicinity / מחקר אזורי בתל יקנעם וסביבתו''"
Qadmoniot: A Journal for the Antiquities of Eretz-Israel and Bible Lands / קדמוניות: כתב-עת לעתיקות ארץ-ישראל וארצות המקרא. Vol 20, issue 1–2. pp. 2–17 * Amnon Ben-Tor,

Doron Ben-Ami Doron Ben-Ami (; born 1965) is an Israeli archaeologist. Ben-Ami earned his PhD at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem in 2003 where he was a member of the Institute of Archaeology as of 2009. He is the discoverer of the structure thought to be th ...

and Ariella Livneh (2005)
"''Yoqne'am III: The Middle And Late Bronze Ages—Final Report of the Archaeological Excavations (1977–1988)''"
Qedem Reports * Amnon Ben-Tor, Anabel Zarzecki-Peleg, Shlomit Cohen- Anidjar (2005)
''"Yoqne'am II: The Iron Age and the Persian Period – Final Report of the Archaeological Excavations (1977–1988)''"
Qedem Reports. ** Manuel Cimadevilla, ''"Part IV: The Persian Period"'' (pp. 400–421) * Amnon Ben-Tor, Yuval Portugali, Miriam Avissar (1996)
"''Yoqne'am I: The Late Periods''"
Qedem Reports ** Kedar, Benjamin Z., "''Chapter Two: The Frankish Period: 'Cain's Mountain''" (pp. 3–8). ** Yuval Portugali, "''Chapter Nine: The City Plan of Yoqne'am in the Crusader Period''" (p. 47) * Amnon Ben-Tor, Anabel Zarzecki-Peleg, Ruhama Bonfíl, Hannah Greenbern, Rafi Burnik
Yoqne'am Regional Project – 1984–1987
Hadashot Arkheologiyot 90, 1987, pp. 18–24 (Hebrew) * * * * (pp. 241–24

* (p
473
* * * * *

External links

* Survey of Western Palestine, Map 8
IAAWikimedia commons
{{Authority control Tells (archaeology) Bronze Age sites in Israel Canaanite cities Amarna letters locations Iron Age sites in Israel Hellenistic sites Byzantine church buildings in Israel Church buildings in the Kingdom of Jerusalem National parks of Israel Hebrew Bible cities Former populated places in West Asia Jezreel Valley Castles and fortifications of the Knights Templar