Techelet

''Tekhelet'' ( ''təḵēleṯ''; also transliterated ''tekheleth'', ''t'chelet'', ''techelet'', and ''techeiles'') is a highly valued blue dye that held great significance in ancient Mediterranean civilizations. In the Hebrew Bible, tekhelet is used to color the ''tzitzit'' ( fringes) attached to the corners of four-cornered garments, including the tallit, and historically in the clothing of the High Priest of Israel and tapestries in the Tabernacle.

The Bible does not specify the source or production method of tekhelet, but rabbinic literature records that it could only be derived from a marine animal known as the ''ḥillāzon'' (Hebrew: ). However, the knowledge of tekhelet production was lost during the Middle Ages, leading to the omission of tekhelet from tzitzit. In recent times, many Jews believe that experts have identified the ''ḥillāzon'' as the snail ''Hexaplex trunculus'' (historically classified as ''Murex trunculus'') and rediscovered the process for manufacturing tekhelet, leading to the revival of tekhelet's use in tzitzit.

A garment with tzitzit consists of four tassels, each containing four strings. There are three differing opinions in rabbinic literature regarding the number of strings in each tassel that should be dyed with tekhelet: two strings, one string, or one-half string.

Biblical references

Of the 49 or 48 uses of the word ''tekhelet'' in the Masoretic Text, one refers to fringes on cornered garments of the whole people of Israel (). The remaining 6 in Esther, Jeremiah and Ezekiel are secular uses, such as when Mordechai puts on "blue and white" "royal clothing" in Esther. Tekhelet could be used in combination with other colors such as 2 Chronicles where the veil of Solomon's Temple is made of tekhelet, Tyrian purple () and scarlet ( or ). mentions that ''tekhelet''-cloth could be obtained from "isles of Elishah" (Cyprus). All Biblical mentions of tekhelet, implies that it was difficult to obtain and expensive, an impression further corroborated by the later rabbinic writings.

History

The manufacture of tekhelet appears to date back to at least 1750 BCE in Crete. In the Amarna letters (14th century BCE) tekhelet garments are listed as a precious good used for a royal dowry.

At some point following the Roman destruction of the Second Temple during the Siege of Jerusalem in 70'' ''CE, the identity of the source of the dye was lost, and since then Jews have only worn ''tzitzit'' without tekhelet. The Talmud mentions use of ''tekhelet'' in the period of Rav Ahai (5th–6th century); however the Tanhuma (8th century) laments that ''tekhelet'' has been lost.

This loss appears to have been caused by a progression of historical events. Already in the first century, Julius Caesar and Augustus restricted the use of the ''Murex'' dye to the governing class. Nero made laws that stated no one was allowed to wear purple because it was the color of royalty, and specifically he forbade goods dyed with ''purpura'', the name used for ''H. trunculus'' under penalty of death. The idea that it was illegal to wear ''tekhelet'' is corroborated by a Talmudic story, in which rabbis caught smuggling ''tekhelet'' were liable to the death penalty. In the sixth century, Justinian put the tekhelet and Tyrian purple industries under a royal monopoly, causing independent dyers to cease their work and find other employment. The apparent final straw was the Muslim conquest of the Levant in 639, in which the royal Byzantine dyeing industry was destroyed. Developments in the Jewish community may also have played a role, such as the proliferation of counterfeit (indigo) threads which made the procurement of genuine tekhelet difficult, and the persecution of Byzantine Jews, which interfered with their export of tekhelet to the communities in Lower Mesopotamia (Jewish "Babylonia"). Some have argued that the use of tekhelet persisted (at least in certain locations) for several centuries beyond the Muslim conquest, based on texts from the geonim and early rishonim which discuss the commandment in practical terms.

The reason why royalty used the ''Murex'' dye as opposed to indigo, which looked the same, was because indigo faded. However, once they figured out how to make indigo endure, they stopped using ''H. trunculus'' because indigo was much cheaper. That is when people stopped using it for its dye entirely.

Color

Despite the general agreement of most of the modern English translations of the phrase, the term tekhelet itself presents several basic problems.

First, it remains unclear to what extent the word in biblical times denoted a color or a source material, though it appears that at least in contemporary Mesopotamian sources, the cognate Assyrian and Babylonian word '' takiltu'' referred to a color and not a material or dyeing process.Shiyanthi Thavapalan,
Purple Fabrics and Garments in Akkadian Documents
, ''Journal of Ancient Near Eastern History'', 2018,

Second, although tekhelet came to denote the color blue with time, the exact hue in antiquity is not definitively known. The task is made harder by the tendency of ancient writers to identify colors not so much by their hue as by other factors such as luminosity, saturation and texture. Modern scholars believe that ''tekhelet'' probably referred to blue-purple and blue colors. The color of tekhelet was likely to have varied in practice, as ancient dyers were unable to produce precise shades from one batch of dye to another.

In the early classical sources (Septuagint, Aquila, Symmachus, Vulgate, Philo, and Josephus), ''tekhelet'' was translated into Koine Greek as ''hyakinthos'' (, "hyacinth") or the Latin equivalent.Efraim Vaynman
Tekhelet: Color Perception or Apprehension?
/ref> The color of the hyacinth flower ranges from violet blue to a bluish purple (though the hyacinth species dominant in the eastern Mediterranean, ''Hyacinthus orientalis'', is violet), and the word ''hyakinthos'' was used to describe both blue and purple colors.

Early rabbinic sources provide indications as to the nature of the color. Some sources describe ''tekhelet'' as visually indistinguishable from indigo ( ). This description is also somewhat ambiguous, as different varieties of indigo have colors ranging between blue and purple, but generally the color of dyed indigo in the ancient world was blue. Baruch Sterman
Tekhelet Perception
/ref>

Other rabbinic sources describe tekhelet as similar to the sea or sky. An oft-repeated explanation for the Torah's choice of tekhelet went as follows: "Why is tekhelet different from all other colors? Because tekhelet is similar n appearanceto the sea, and the sea is similar to the sky, and the sky is similar to lapis lazuli, and lapis lazuli is similar to the Throne of Glory." (In a few versions of this source, "plants" are included in this chain of similarity even though plants are not blue; though it has been suggested that these sources refer to bluish plants like hyacinth.) Jose ben Jose was another early author who described ''tekhelet'' as resembling the sky.

In other sources, the color of the tekhelet is compared to the night sky. Similarly, Rashi quotes Moshe ha-Darshan who describes it as "the color of the sky as it darkens toward evening" – a deep sky blue or dark violet.

Rashi himself describes the color as "green" () and "green, and close to the color of leeks", the latter commenting on a Talmudic passage according to which the morning Shema may be recited once it is light enough to distinguish between tekhelet and leeks. Other Jewish texts comment that "the appearance which is called in the language of Ashkenaz ''bleu'' () is within the category of green" suggesting that Rashi's language does not necessarily rule out a blue color.

The Sifrei says that counterfeit tekhelet was made from both " eddye and indigo", indicating that the overall color was purple. However, other sources list just "indigo" as the counterfeit, suggesting either that in their opinion the color was purely blue, or that indigo was the main counterfeit ingredient and the other ingredients not significant enough to mention.

The Sippar Dye Text (7th century), as well as the Leyden papyrus X and Papyrus Graecus Holmiensis (3rd century) provide recipes for counterfeit ''takiltu'' that includes a mixture of red and blue colours, for an overall purple colour.

A pure blue can only be produced from ''Hexaplex'' dye through a debromination process. Only in the 1980's did modern science learn how to create blue ''Hexaplex'' dye using this process, leading some experts to declare that ancient dyers would not have been able to create blue tekhelet (and, therefore, that an undebrominated purple color is more likely). However, in recent years archaeologists have recovered several fabrics dyed blue with ''Hexaplex'' dye 1800 or more years ago, demonstrating that ancient dyers could and did make blue dye from ''Hexaplex''. Such fabrics have been found at Wadi Murabba'at (2nd century), Masada (1st century BCE), Qatna (14th century BCE), and arguablyEfraim Vaynman
A Testament to the True Tekhelet
/ref> the Pazyryk burials (5th–4th century BCE).

Source – Identifying the ''ḥillazon''

While the Bible does not identify the source of tekhelet, rabbinic texts specified that it could only be made from a sea creature known as the ''ḥillāzon''. Various animals have been suggested as the ''ḥillazon''.The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia – Page 1057 Geoffrey W. Bromiley – 2007 "The most highly prized dye in the ancient world obtained from the secretions of four molluscs native to the eastern Mediterranean: '' Helix ianthina'', ''Murex brandaris'', ''Murex trunculus'', and'' Purpura lapillus''. Various shades could be produced"

Rabbinic sources describe various qualities of this creature. It was found on the coast between Tyre and Haifa. "Its body is similar to the sea, and its form (ברייתו) is similar to a fish, and it comes up rom the seaonce every 70 years, and with its blood ''tekhelet'' is dyed, therefore it is expensive." Dye was extracted from the ''Ḥillazon'' by cracking it open, suggesting that it has a hard external shell. Just as the Hebrews' clothing did not wear out in the desert (), the shell of the ''Ḥillazon'' does not wear out. Various animals have been suggested as the ''ḥillazon''.

Garments dyed with tekhelet and indigo have such similar appearance that only God can distinguish them. Elsewhere, one opinion says that there is no chemical test which can distinguish between ''tekhelet'' and indigo wool, but another opinion describes such a test and tells the story of it working successfully. Trapping the ''Ḥillazon'' is considered a violation of Shabbat. In the time of the Talmud, the ''hillāzon'' was used as part of a remedy for hemorrhoids, though this may refer to a different species of snail.

''Hexaplex trunculus''

In his doctoral thesis (London, 1913) on the subject, Yitzhak HaLevi Herzog named ''H. trunculus'' (then known by the name ''Murex trunculus'') as the most likely candidate for the dye's source. Herzog concluded "it is very unlikely that the ''tekhelet''-hillazon is not the snail called Murex trunculus, but though unlikely, it is still possible." Though ''H. trunculus'' fulfilled many of the Talmudic criteria, Herzog's inability to consistently obtain blue dye (sometimes the dye was purple) from the snail precluded him from declaring it to be the dye source. In the 1980s, Otto Elsner, a chemist from the Shenkar College of Fibers in Israel, discovered that if a solution of the dye was exposed to ultraviolet rays such as from sunlight, blue instead of purple was consistently produced. In 1988, Rabbi Eliyahu Tavger dyed tekhelet from ''H. trunculus'' for the commandment of ''tzitzit'' for the first time in recent history. Based on this work, four years later, the was founded to educate about the dye production process and to make the dye available for all who desire to use it. The television show '' The Naked Archaeologist'' interviews an Israeli scientist who also makes the claim that this mollusk is the correct animal. A demonstration of the production of the blue dye using sunlight to produce the blue colour is shown. The dye is extracted from the hypobranchial gland of ''H. trunculus'' snails.

Chemically, exposure to sunlight turns the red 6,6'-dibromoindigo in snails into a mixture of blue indigo dye and blue-purple 6-bromoindigo. The ''leuco'' (white) solution form of dibromoindigo loses some bromines in the ultraviolet radiation.

Arguments for ''Hexaplex trunculus''

The dye produced by ''Hexaplex'' has the exact same chemical composition as indigo, corresponding to the statement that only God can distinguish the ''tekhelet'' from indigo garments.

In the area between Tyre and Haifa where the ''ḥillāzon'' was found, piles of murex shells hundreds of yards long have been found, apparently the result of dyeing operations. In Tel Shikmona (near Haifa), a "biblical era purple dye workshop" was found, including relics of purple dye produced from sea snails, as well as textile manufacturing equipment.

Chemical testing of ancient blue-dyed cloth from the appropriate time period in Israel reveals that a sea snail-based dye was used. Since murex dye was available, very long-lasting, and visibly indistinguishable from indigo-based dyes, but also not specifically prohibited as counterfeit despite being known, it is argued that ''H. trunculus'' (or one of the other two indigo-producing sea snails) must have been the ''ḥillāzon'' or at least deemed as acceptable to use interchangeably.

The word ''ḥillāzon'' is cognate to the Arabic word (), meaning snail. ''Hexaplex'' opponents suggest that in ancient times the word might have referred to a broader category of animals, perhaps including other candidate species such as the cuttlefish.

Another Talmudic requirement is that the dye cannot fade, and the ''H. trunculus'' dye does not fade and can only be removed from wool with bleach.

The Talmud states that the ''ḥillāzon'' is preferably kept alive while the dye is extracted, as killing it causes the dye to degrade. This matches both ancient descriptions of the ''Hexaplex'' dyeing process and also modern experience that an enzyme in the snail needed for dye production decays quickly after death.

The Jerusalem Talmud as quoted by Raavyah translates tekhelet as ''porporin''; similarly ''Musaf Aruch'' translates ''tekhelet'' as ''parpar''. These translations refer to the Latin term ''purpura'', meaning the dye produced by Hexaplex snails. Similarly, Yair Bacharach stated that tekhelet was derived from ''purpura'' snails, even though this forced him to conclude that the colour of ''tekhelet'' was purple (purpur) rather than blue, as in his era it was unknown how to produce blue dye from Hexaplex.

The word porforin, or porpora, or porphoros is used in the midrash as well as many other Jewish texts to refer to the ''Ḥillazon'', and this is the Greek translation of ''Murex trunculus''. Pliny and Aristotle also both refer to the Porpura as being the source for purple and blue dyes, showing that the Murex has a long history of being used for blue dye.

speaks of treasures hidden in the sand; the Talmud states that the word "treasures" refers to the ''ḥillāzon''. Similarly, ''H. trunculus'' often burrows into the sand, making it difficult to detect even by scuba divers.

While (as described in the next section) Hexaplex arguably does not fit every textual description of the ''ḥillāzon'', nevertheless, "Of the thousands of fish and mollusks that were studied to date, no other fish has been found that can produce the ''tekhelet'' color", which suggests that there is no more likely alternative species.

Arguments against ''Hexaplex trunculus''

The Talmud equates the colors of tekhelet and indigo but also gives a practical test to distinguish between the two fabrics. Seemingly, since the color-producing compounds in ''H. trunculus'' and indigo are identical, no test should be able to distinguish them. However, according to Professor Otto Elsner, while ''Hexaplex'' and indigo have the same color-producing compound, they also contain other compounds which differ and may lead to a different response in the practical test. According t
Dr. Israel Irving Ziderman
s writings in the 1980s, the test consists of a chemical reduction reaction occurring when hydrogen is produced by decaying organic matter. Indigo (from a vegetable source) is more strongly reduced than the debrominated indigo found in snail ''tekhelet'' (assuming a blue-purple rather than pure blue tekhelet), leading to a different result to the test. In 2003, Ziderman officially modified his stance, now maintaining that heating the violet wool in 60-80C will turn the wool to blue with a small hint of violet. This is opposed to the wool being blue with a hint of turquoise.

The ''ḥillāzon''s body resembles the sea. This does not appear to be true of ''Hexaplex''. ''Hexaplex'' supporters argue that when alive, Hexaplex is well camouflaged and has a similar appearance to the sea floor, apparently due to algae growing on its shell. The shell colour can even be blue, similar to the sea.

The ''ḥillāzon'' has a "form like a fish", which a snail seemingly does not. ''Hexaplex'' supporters reply that its shell somewhat resembles a fish in shape. Similarly Maimonides, Tosafot, and Rashi say the ''Ḥillazon'' is a "fish" (דג), while ''Hexaplex'' is a snail rather than a fish. Hexaplex supporters argue that many forms of aquatic life (e.g., shellfish — of which sea snails would be an example) are also called "דגים" in Hebrew.

The ''ḥillāzon'' is said to come up from the sea once every 70 years. It is unclear what this is exactly referring to, but the ''Hexaplex'' has no such cycle. ''Hexaplex'' supporters note that elsewhere the Talmud makes clear that the ''ḥillāzon'' was also hunted by normal methods at other times.Shabbat 75a Some sources say the reference to "70 years" does not imply a periodic cycle, but rather simply that this phenomenon is a rare event. ''Hexaplex'' may have cycles of other lengths which inspired this statement: a seven-month cycle for harvesting ''Hexaplex'' was claimed by Pliny and confirmed by modern researchers, while ''Hexaplex'' appears to have a yearly behavioural cycle in which it burrows in the sand in summer and emerges from swimming in winter. Other sources claim that the 70-year cycle was a miraculous occurrence which no longer occurs or else that the decrease in ''Hexaplex'' population numbers may have caused this behavior to cease.

There are two other snails that produce the same dye as ''H. trunculus'': ''Bolinus brandaris'' and '' Stramonita haemastoma'', so how do we know which one is the ''ḥillāzon''? Some argue that dye from any of these species would be valid. Alternatively, ''H. trunculus'' contains more natural indigo and thus is a more natural source for blue tekhelet and archaeological finds show ''H. trunculus'' being processed separately from snails of the other species, suggesting that a different color was derived from this species.

Trapping the ''Ḥillazon'' is a violation of Shabbat. However, according to some rishonim, in general, it is permitted to capture slow-moving animals like snails on Shabbat (as capturing them requires only a trivial effort - בחד שחיא). This contradiction suggests that the ''hillazon'' is not a snail. ''Hexaplex'' supporters argue that since ''Hexaplex'' tends to camouflage itself and hide in the sand, capturing it is a difficult process and thus (by some opinions) forbidden. There is another point of contention in that the animals permitted to catch are land-based slow-moving creatures. All sea-based creatures, aside from having the Halachic status of a "fish", on a more practical level are impossible for the average person to gather without some form of trapping, and in fact, even today are caught with nets or wicker baskets.

Maimonides described the ''ḥillāzon'', stating that "its blood is as black as ink", which does not seem to match the characteristics of ''Hexaplex''. ''Hexaplex'' supporters argue that this claim has no source earlier than Rambam and seems to be based on a mistaken statement by Aristotle However, a black precipitate can indeed be derived from ''Hexaplex'' and refined into dye. Additionally, Aristotle classified the dye secretions of marine snails into two color categories: black and red, with Tekhelet falling under the black blood category. In his "History of Animals", Aristotle writes: "There are many kinds of purpurae ... Most of them contain a black pigment; in others, it is red, and the quantity of it small."

Tractate Menachot and the Rambam explain the process for making the dye for tekhelet, and neither of them mention explicitly that it needs to be placed in the sunlight. Exposing the dye to sunlight is the most commonly used method today to make the dye from ''H. trunculus''. Other methods have been discovered to produce blue, such as like boil heating or adding a strong reactant.

''Sepia officinalis''

In 1887, Grand Rabbi Gershon Henoch Leiner, the Radziner Rebbe, researched the subject and concluded that ''Sepia officinalis'' (common cuttlefish) met many of the criteria. Within a year, Radziner chassidim began wearing tzitzit with cuttlefish dye. Herzog obtained a sample of this dye and had it chemically analyzed. The chemists concluded that it was a well-known synthetic dye "Prussian blue" made by reacting iron(II) sulfate with an organic material. In this case, the cuttlefish only supplied the organic material, which could have as easily been supplied from a vast array of organic sources (e.g., ox blood). Herzog thus rejected the cuttlefish as the ''ḥillāzon,'' and some suggest that had Leiner known this fact, he too would have rejected it based on his explicit criterion that the blue color must come from the animal and that all other additives are permitted solely to aid the color in adhering to the wool.

''Janthina''

Within his doctoral research on the subject of tekhelet, Herzog placed great hopes on demonstrating that ''H. trunculus'' was the genuine ''ḥillāzon.'' However, having failed to consistently achieve blue dye from Hexaplex, he wrote: "If for the present all hope is to be abandoned of rediscovering the ''ḥillāzon shel tekhēleth'' in some species of the genera ''Murex'' ow "Hexaplex"and ''Purpura'' we could do worse than suggest ''Janthina'' as a not improbable identification". Janthina is a genus of sea snails, separate from Hexaplex. More recently, blue dye has been obtained from ''Hexaplex'', and the pigment molecule itself is hypothesized to be Tyrian purple or aplysioviolin. ''Janthina'' seems an unsuitable candidate in several ways: it was apparently only rarely used by ancient dyers; it is found far out at sea (while the ''ḥillāzon'' is apparently found near the coast); and its pigment is allegedly unsuitable for dyeing.Halakhic aspects of reviving the ritual tekhelet dye
/ref>

In 2002 Dr. S. W. Kaplan of Rehovot, Israel, sought to investigate Herzog's suggestion that tekhelet came from the extract of ''Janthina''. After fifteen years of research, he still believes that ''Janthina'' is the ancient source of the blue dye.

Current status of the ''tekhelet'' commandment

A midrash states that tekhelet was "hidden" () and now only white strings are available. The meaning of the term "hidden" is unclear. Beit Halevi argued (when debating the Radziner rebbe) that a continuous tradition regarding the source of the dye, which no longer exists, was necessary in order for it to be used. However, Radbaz and Maharil ruled otherwise, that rediscovering the dye is sufficient to perform the commandment. Yeshuot Malko suggested that even if ''tekhelet'' was hidden until the messianic era, the apparent rediscovery of ''tekhelet'' suggests that the messianic era is approaching, rather than suggesting that the ''tekhelet'' is invalid.

According to halakha, when in doubt about the laws of a commandment from the Torah, one must act stringently. Some rabbis , therefore, argue that even if we are uncertain in our identification of the ''ḥillāzon'', we must wear the most likely dye anyway (i.e. ''Hexaplex''). Others disagree, asserting that the principle of stringency only applies in cases such that after one acts stringently, there is no further obligation (whereas if ''Hexaplex'' is only doubtfully correct, there would remain a theoretical obligation to find the actual correct species and use it). Nevertheless, a number of Rabbis have come out to wear tekhelet publicly.

Based on , the Talmud rules that we should not make divisions among the Jewish people. Therefore, if a person acts differently from the rest of the Jewish people, they are creating divisions. Some have argued that one should not publicly wear tekhelet for this reason; others consider this not to be a concern. In any case it would not be relevant in many contemporary communities where ''tekhelet''-wearing is widespread.

There exists a Torah commandment not to detract from any other law. Hershel Schachter says that if one knows what tekhelet is, yet chooses to wear tzitzit without tekhelet, they are violating this commandment. Many other rabbis do not agree with this statement.

Tying methods

Maimonides holds that half of one string should be colored blue, and it should wrap around the other seven white strings. It should wrap around three times and then leave some space and then three more and leave some more space and should continue like this for either 7 or 13 groups. The first and last wrap-around should be from a white string, not a blue string.

Abraham ben David holds that one full string should be blue, and there should be four groups of at least seven coils alternating between white and blue, both beginning and ending with blue. There are multiple other opinions of how to tie the tzitzit if one full string is blue.

Tosafot holds that two full strings should be tekhelet. He is of the opinion that the coils should be in groups of three, starting with three white, then three blue alternating and ending with three white. There is another way to tie using two full strings that Schachter follows based on the opinion of Samuel ben Hofni.

Tekhelet in Jewish culture

Besides the ritual uses of tekhelet, the color blue plays various roles in Jewish culture, some of which are influenced by the role of tekhelet.

The stripes on the tallit, often black or blue, are believed by some to symbolize the lost ''tekhelet'', though other explanations have been given. The use of blue in the tallit and temple robes led to the association of blue and white with Judaism and inspired the design of the flag of Israel.

Like their non-Jewish neighbors, Jews of the Middle East painted their doorposts, and other parts of their homes with blue dyes; have ornamented their children with tekhelet ribbons and markings; and have used this color in protective amulets.

Gallery

Image:Tyrian-Purple.svg, Structural formula of murex-based tyrian purple, the red-purple dye present in ''tekhelet'' indigo before exposure to sunlight. (''note the two bromides: in marine environments, sodium bromide is abundant. It is far less abundant in terrestrial environments'')
File:Indigo skeletal.svg, Structural formula of plant based or synthetic indigo, a ''counterfeit'' dark-blue

See also

*Tantura
*Argaman, also called Tyrian purple, a Biblical reddish-purple dye from the related seasnail, Bolinus brandaris

References

Bibliography

Gadi Sagiv, 'Deep Blue: Notes on the Jewish Snail Fight'
*
*

KolRom Media, 'Techeiles - It's Not All Black and White'

External links

Ptil Tekhelet
– A group that promotes the view that the ''ḥillāzon'' is the snail ''H. trunculus''.



{{Authority control

Animal dyes
Color in religion
Hebrew words and phrases in the Hebrew Bible
Jewish religious clothing
Jewish ritual objects
Mollusc products
Non-clerical religious clothing
Shades of blue