Tawhid Al-Mufaddal
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The (, 'Declaration by al-Mufaddal of the Oneness of God'), also known as the ('Book on the Beginning of Creation and the Incitement to Contemplation'), is a ninth-century treatise concerned with proving the
existence of God The existence of God is a subject of debate in the philosophy of religion and theology. A wide variety of arguments for and against the existence of God (with the same or similar arguments also generally being used when talking about the exis ...
, attributed to the early Shi'i Muslim leader
al-Mufaddal ibn Umar al-Ju'fi Abū ʿAbd Allāh al-Mufaḍḍal ibn ʿUmar al-Juʿfī (), died before 799, was an early Shi'i leader and the purported author of a number of religious and philosophical writings. A contemporary of the Imams Ja'far al-Sadiq (–765) and Musa ...
(died before 799). The work presents itself as a dialogue between al-Mufaddal and the Shi'i Imam
Ja'far al-Sadiq Ja'far al-Sadiq (; –765) was a Muslim hadith transmitter and the last agreed-upon Shia Imam between the Twelvers and Isma'ilis. Known by the title al-Sadiq ("The Truthful"), Ja'far was the eponymous founder of the Ja'fari school of Isla ...
(–765), who is the main speaker.. Like most other works attributed to al-Mufaddal, the was in fact written by a later, anonymous author who took advantage of al-Mufaddal's status as one of the closest confidants of Ja'far al-Sadiq in order to ascribe their own ideas to the illustrious
Imam Imam (; , '; : , ') is an Islamic leadership position. For Sunni Islam, Sunni Muslims, Imam is most commonly used as the title of a prayer leader of a mosque. In this context, imams may lead Salah, Islamic prayers, serve as community leaders, ...
. However, it differs from other treatises attributed to al-Mufaddal by the absence of any content that is specifically Shi'i in nature, a trait it shares with only one other Mufaddal work—also dealing with a rational proof for the existence of God—the ('Book of the
Myrobalan The common name myrobalan can refer to several unrelated fruit-bearing plant species: * Myrobalan plum (''Prunus cerasifera''), also called cherry plum and myrobalan plum * Emblic myrobalan (''Phyllanthus emblica''), also called Amla and Amalaki In ...
Fruit'). Though both preserved by the 17th-century Shi'i scholar Muhammad Baqir al-Majlisi (died 1699), the only thing that connects the and the to Shi'ism more generally is their ascription to Ja'far al-Sadiq and al-Mufaddal. Rather than by Shi'i doctrine, their content appears to be influenced by
Mu'tazilism Mu'tazilism (, singular ) is an Islamic theological school that appeared in early Islamic history and flourished in Basra and Baghdad. Its adherents, the Mu'tazilites, were known for their neutrality in the dispute between Ali and his opponents ...
, a rationalistic school of Islamic speculative theology (). The is a revised version of a work falsely attributed to the famous Mu'tazili litterateur
al-Jahiz Abu Uthman Amr ibn Bahr al-Kinani al-Basri (; ), commonly known as al-Jahiz (), was an Arab polymath and author of works of literature (including theory and criticism), theology, zoology, philosophy, grammar, dialectics, rhetoric, philology, lin ...
(died 868) under the title ('Book of Proofs and Contemplation on Creation and Administration')., referring to . Both the and
pseudo Pseudo- (from , ) is a prefix used in a number of languages, often to mark something as a fake or insincere version. In English, the prefix is used on both nouns and adjectives. It can be considered a privative prefix specifically denoting '' ...
-Jahiz's likely go back on an earlier ninth-century text, which has sometimes been identified as the ('Book of Thought and Contemplation') written by the ninth-century
Nestorian Nestorianism is a term used in Christian theology and Church history to refer to several mutually related but doctrinarily distinct sets of teachings. The first meaning of the term is related to the original teachings of Christian theologian ...
Christian Jibril ibn Nuh ibn Abi Nuh al-Nasrani al-Anbari. The
teleological argument The teleological argument (from ) also known as physico-theological argument, argument from design, or intelligent design argument, is a rational argument for the existence of God or, more generally, that complex functionality in the natural wor ...
for the existence of God used in the is inspired by
Syriac Christian Syriac Christianity (, ''Mšiḥoyuṯo Suryoyto'' or ''Mšiḥāyūṯā Suryāytā'') is a branch of Eastern Christianity of which formative theological writings and traditional liturgies are expressed in the Classical Syriac language, a vari ...
literature (especially commentaries on the
Hexameron The term Hexaemeron (Greek: Ἡ Ἑξαήμερος Δημιουργία ''Hē Hexaēmeros Dēmiourgia''), literally "six days," is used in one of two senses. In one sense, it refers to the Genesis creation narrative spanning Genesis 1:1–2:3: ...
), and ultimately goes back on
Hellenistic In classical antiquity, the Hellenistic period covers the time in Greek history after Classical Greece, between the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and the death of Cleopatra VII in 30 BC, which was followed by the ascendancy of the R ...
models such as the
pseudo-Aristotelian Pseudo-Aristotle is a general cognomen for authors of philosophical or medical treatises who attributed their works to the Greek philosopher Aristotle, or whose work was later attributed to him by others. Such falsely attributed works are known as ...
('
On the Universe ''On the Universe'' (; ) is a theological and scientific treatise included in the Corpus Aristotelicum but usually regarded as Pseudo-Aristotle, spurious. It was likely published between the and the . The work discusses cosmological, geological, ...
', third/second century BCE) and Stoic theology as recorded in
Cicero Marcus Tullius Cicero ( ; ; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, orator, writer and Academic skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises tha ...
's (106–43 BCE) .


Contents

The work sets out to prove the existence of God based on the argument from design (also called the
teleological argument The teleological argument (from ) also known as physico-theological argument, argument from design, or intelligent design argument, is a rational argument for the existence of God or, more generally, that complex functionality in the natural wor ...
). It consists of a series of lectures about the existence and oneness () of God presented to al-Mufaddal by Ja'far al-Sadiq, who is answering a challenge made to him by the self-declared atheist Ibn Abi al-Awja'. In four 'sessions' (), Ja'far argues that the cosmic order and harmony which can be detected throughout nature necessitates the existence of a wise creator.. The Twelver Shi'i bibliographer
al-Najashi Najāshi or al-Najāshī () may refer to: *Najashi The ''Najashi'' () was the Arabic term for the ruler of the Kingdom of Aksum () who reigned from 614 to 630. It is agreed by Muslim scholars that Najashi gave shelter to early Muslim refugees f ...
(–1058) also refers to the work as the (), a reference to the fact that Ja'far often begins his exhortation with the word (think!).. The is in fact not an original work. Instead, it is a revised version of a work also attributed to the famous Mu'tazili litterateur
al-Jahiz Abu Uthman Amr ibn Bahr al-Kinani al-Basri (; ), commonly known as al-Jahiz (), was an Arab polymath and author of works of literature (including theory and criticism), theology, zoology, philosophy, grammar, dialectics, rhetoric, philology, lin ...
(died 868) under the title ('Book of Proofs and Contemplation on Creation and Administration'). The attribution of this work to al-Jahiz is probably spurious as well, though it was still likely written in the ninth century. Compared to
pseudo Pseudo- (from , ) is a prefix used in a number of languages, often to mark something as a fake or insincere version. In English, the prefix is used on both nouns and adjectives. It can be considered a privative prefix specifically denoting '' ...
-Jahiz's , the adds an introduction that sets up the
frame story A frame story (also known as a frame tale, frame narrative, sandwich narrative, or intercalation) is a literary technique that serves as a companion piece to a story within a story, where an introductory or main narrative sets the stage either fo ...
involving al-Mufaddal, Ibn Abi al-Awja', and Ja'far al-Sadiq, as well rhymed praises of God at the beginning of each chapter, and a brief concluding passage. According to Melhem Chokr, the versions attributed to al-Mufaddal and to al-Jahiz are both based on an unknown earlier work, with the version attributed to al-Mufaddal being more faithful to the original.. Both Hans Daiber and
Josef van Ess Josef may refer to *Josef (given name) * Josef (surname) * ''Josef'' (film), a 2011 Croatian war film *Musik Josef Musik Josef is a Japanese manufacturer of musical instruments. It was founded by Yukio Nakamura and is the only company in Japan spe ...
identify this original work as the ('Book of Thought and Contemplation'), written by the ninth-century
Nestorian Christian Nestorianism is a term used in Christian theology and Church history to refer to several mutually related but doctrinarily distinct sets of teachings. The first meaning of the term is related to the original teachings of Christian theologian ...
Jibril ibn Nuh ibn Abi Nuh al-Nasrani al-Anbari., referring to ; . Daiber and van Ess speak only about pseudo-Jahiz's and its later adaptations, ignoring the . In any case, Jibril ibn Nuh's , the and pseudo-Jahiz's are only the three earliest among many extant versions of the work: adaptations were also made by the Nestorian Christian bishop
Elijah of Nisibis Elijah, Eliya, or Elias of Nisibis (, 11February 975– 18July 1046) was an Assyrian people, Assyrian cleric of the Church of the East, who served as bishop of Beth Nuhadra (1002–1008) and archbishop of Nisibis (1008–1046). He has been called ...
(died 1056) in his , by the Sunni mystic
al-Ghazali Al-Ghazali ( – 19 December 1111), archaically Latinized as Algazelus, was a Shafi'i Sunni Muslim scholar and polymath. He is known as one of the most prominent and influential jurisconsults, legal theoreticians, muftis, philosophers, the ...
(died 1111) in his ,; . and by the Andalusian Jewish philosopher
Bahya ibn Paquda Bahyā ibn Pāqudā (Bahya ben Joseph ibn Pakuda, Pekudah, Bakuda; , ), c. 1050–1120, was a Jewish philosopher and rabbi who lived in the Taifa of Zaragoza in al-Andalus (now Spain). He was one of two people now known as Rabbeinu Behaye, the o ...
(died first half of 12th century) in his . The / contains many parallels with
Syriac Christian Syriac Christianity (, ''Mšiḥoyuṯo Suryoyto'' or ''Mšiḥāyūṯā Suryāytā'') is a branch of Eastern Christianity of which formative theological writings and traditional liturgies are expressed in the Classical Syriac language, a vari ...
literature, such as the commentaries on the
Hexameron The term Hexaemeron (Greek: Ἡ Ἑξαήμερος Δημιουργία ''Hē Hexaēmeros Dēmiourgia''), literally "six days," is used in one of two senses. In one sense, it refers to the Genesis creation narrative spanning Genesis 1:1–2:3: ...
(the six days of creation as described in
Genesis Genesis may refer to: Religion * Book of Genesis, the first book of the biblical scriptures of both Judaism and Christianity, describing the creation of the Earth and of humankind * Genesis creation narrative, the first several chapters of the Bo ...
) written by
Jacob of Edessa Jacob of Edessa (or James of Edessa) () (c. 640 – 5 June 708) was Bishop of Edessa and prominent Syriac Christian writer in Classical Syriac language, also known as one of earliest Syriac grammarians. In various works, he treated theologica ...
(–708) and
Moses bar Kepha Moses bar Kepha or Moses bar Cephas ( Syriac ''Mushe bar Kipho''; born in Balad in Nineveh, now in Iraq, about the year 813; died at the age of ninety, in 903) was a writer and one of the most celebrated bishops of the Syriac Orthodox Church of t ...
(–903), as well as Job of Edessa's encyclopedic work on natural philosophy called the ''Book of Treasures'' (). Its teleological proof of the existence of God—based upon a discussion of the
four elements The classical elements typically refer to earth, water, air, fire, and (later) aether which were proposed to explain the nature and complexity of all matter in terms of simpler substances. Ancient cultures in Greece, Angola, Tibet, India, a ...
, minerals, plants, animals,
meteorology Meteorology is the scientific study of the Earth's atmosphere and short-term atmospheric phenomena (i.e. weather), with a focus on weather forecasting. It has applications in the military, aviation, energy production, transport, agricultur ...
, and the human being—was likely inspired by the
pseudo-Aristotelian Pseudo-Aristotle is a general cognomen for authors of philosophical or medical treatises who attributed their works to the Greek philosopher Aristotle, or whose work was later attributed to him by others. Such falsely attributed works are known as ...
work ('
On the Universe ''On the Universe'' (; ) is a theological and scientific treatise included in the Corpus Aristotelicum but usually regarded as Pseudo-Aristotle, spurious. It was likely published between the and the . The work discusses cosmological, geological, ...
', third/second century BCE), a work also used by the Syriac authors mentioned above. In particular, the / contains the same emphasis on the idea that God, who already in the is called "one", can only be known through the wisdom permeating his creative works, while his own essence () remains hidden for all. The idea that contemplating the works of nature leads to a knowledge of God is also found in the
Quran The Quran, also Romanization, romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a Waḥy, revelation directly from God in Islam, God (''Allah, Allāh''). It is organized in 114 chapters (, ) which ...
.. However, in the case of the /, the idea is set in a philosophical framework that clearly goes back on
Hellenistic In classical antiquity, the Hellenistic period covers the time in Greek history after Classical Greece, between the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and the death of Cleopatra VII in 30 BC, which was followed by the ascendancy of the R ...
models. Apart from the (3rd/2nd century BCE), there are also many parallels with
Cicero Marcus Tullius Cicero ( ; ; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, orator, writer and Academic skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises tha ...
's (106–43 BCE) , especially with the
Stoic Stoic may refer to: * An adherent of Stoicism Stoicism is a school of Hellenistic philosophy that flourished in ancient Greece and Rome. The Stoics believed that the universe operated according to reason, ''i.e.'' by a God which is immersed i ...
views on
teleology Teleology (from , and )Partridge, Eric. 1977''Origins: A Short Etymological Dictionary of Modern English'' London: Routledge, p. 4187. or finalityDubray, Charles. 2020 912Teleology. In ''The Catholic Encyclopedia'' 14. New York: Robert Appleton ...
and
divine providence In theology, divine providence, or simply providence, is God's intervention in the universe. The term ''Divine Providence'' (usually capitalized) is also used as a names of God, title of God. A distinction is usually made between "general prov ...
outlined in Cicero's work. According to Melhem Chokr, the original on which both the and the were based was translated into Arabic from the Greek, perhaps from an unknown Hermetic work. Some of the enemies cited in the work are Diagoras (5th century BCE) and
Epicurus Epicurus (, ; ; 341–270 BC) was an Greek philosophy, ancient Greek philosopher who founded Epicureanism, a highly influential school of philosophy that asserted that philosophy's purpose is to attain as well as to help others attain tranqui ...
(341–270 BCE), both reviled since
late antiquity Late antiquity marks the period that comes after the end of classical antiquity and stretches into the onset of the Early Middle Ages. Late antiquity as a period was popularized by Peter Brown (historian), Peter Brown in 1971, and this periodiza ...
for their alleged atheism, as well as
Mani Mani may refer to: People * Mani (name), (), a given name and surname (including a list of people with the name) ** Mani (prophet) (c. 216–274), a 3rd century Iranian prophet who founded Manichaeism ** Mani (musician) (born 1962), an English ...
(–274 or 277 CE), the founding prophet of
Manichaeism Manichaeism (; in ; ) is an endangered former major world religion currently only practiced in China around Cao'an,R. van den Broek, Wouter J. Hanegraaff ''Gnosis and Hermeticism from Antiquity to Modern Times''. SUNY Press, 1998 p. 37 found ...
; a certain Dūsī, and all those who would deny the providence and purposefullness (Arabic: ) of God.


Reception

Often transmitted together in the
manuscripts A manuscript (abbreviated MS for singular and MSS for plural) was, traditionally, any document written by hand or typewritten, as opposed to mechanically printed or reproduced in some indirect or automated way. More recently, the term has c ...
, both the and the may be regarded as part of an attempt to rehabilitate al-Mufaddal in the
Twelver Shi'i Twelver Shi'ism (), also known as Imamism () or Ithna Ashari, is the largest branch of Shi'a Islam, comprising about 90% of all Shi'a Muslims. The term ''Twelver'' refers to its adherents' belief in twelve divinely ordained leaders, known as th ...
tradition. Al-Mufaddal was known to have for some time been a follower of Abu al-Khattab (died 755), a leader of the early branch of Shi'ism known as the ('exaggerators', thus known for their supposed 'exaggerated' veneration of the
Imam Imam (; , '; : , ') is an Islamic leadership position. For Sunni Islam, Sunni Muslims, Imam is most commonly used as the title of a prayer leader of a mosque. In this context, imams may lead Salah, Islamic prayers, serve as community leaders, ...
s). Many treatises attributed to al-Mufaddal also belong to the tradition of the . Twelver Shi'is generally rejected the ideas of the , but al-Mufaddal was important to them as a narrator of numerous
hadith Hadith is the Arabic word for a 'report' or an 'account f an event and refers to the Islamic oral tradition of anecdotes containing the purported words, actions, and the silent approvals of the Islamic prophet Muhammad or his immediate circle ...
s from the Imams Ja'far al-Sadiq and his son
Musa al-Kazim Musa al-Kazim (; 745–799) was a descendant of the Prophets and messengers in Islam, Islamic prophet Muhammad and the seventh Twelve Imams, imam in Twelver Shi'ism, Twelver Shia Islam. Musa is often known by the title al-Kazim (), apparently ...
. Apart from al-Majlisi (died 1699), both works were also known to such Twelver scholars as
al-Najashi Najāshi or al-Najāshī () may refer to: *Najashi The ''Najashi'' () was the Arabic term for the ruler of the Kingdom of Aksum () who reigned from 614 to 630. It is agreed by Muslim scholars that Najashi gave shelter to early Muslim refugees f ...
(–1058),
Ibn Shahrashub Zayn al-Dīn Abū Jaʿfar Muḥammad ibn ʿAlī ibn Shahrāshūb ibn Abī Naṣr ibn Abī al-Jaysh (Arabic: زین الدین أبوجعفر محمد بن علي بن شهرآشوب بن أبي نصر بن أبي الجيش), more commonly known sim ...
(died 1192), Ibn Tawus (1193–1266).. On Ibn Tawus's use of them, see .


References


Sources used

* ( in vol. 3, pp. 57–151; in vol. 3, pp. 152–198) * * * * * * * * * * * (reprinted in {{cite book, last1=Van Ess, first1=Josef, author1-link=Josef van Ess, date=2018, title=Kleine Schriften, location=Leiden, publisher=Brill, pages=1431–1445, isbn=978-90-04-31224-1, doi=10.1163/9789004336483_099) 9th-century Arabic-language books Islamic philosophical texts Pseudepigraphy Shia theology books