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Tanganyika is one of the four
sectors Sector may refer to: Places * Sector, West Virginia, U.S. Geometry * Circular sector, the portion of a disc enclosed by two radii and a circular arc * Hyperbolic sector, a region enclosed by two radii and a hyperbolic arc * Spherical sector, a ...
of
Fizi Territory Fizi Territory is a territory located in the southern part of South Kivu Province, in the eastern region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It spans an area of approximately 15,864 square kilometers and shares borders with Uvira Territory ...
in South Kivu Province, located in the eastern region of the
Democratic Republic of the Congo The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), also known as the DR Congo, Congo-Kinshasa, or simply the Congo (the last ambiguously also referring to the neighbouring Republic of the Congo), is a country in Central Africa. By land area, it is t ...
. Spanning approximately 2,100 square kilometers, it ranks as the third-largest sector in the territory, following
Lulenge Lulenge constitutes one of the four Sectors of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, sectors within the Fizi Territory of South Kivu, South Kivu Province, situated in the eastern region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It spans an area of ...
. The sector derives its name from
Lake Tanganyika Lake Tanganyika ( ; ) is an African Great Lakes, African Great Lake. It is the world's List of lakes by volume, second-largest freshwater lake by volume and the List of lakes by depth, second deepest, in both cases after Lake Baikal in Siberia. ...
, which borders it to the east and forms a
natural boundary In complex analysis, a branch of mathematics, analytic continuation is a technique to extend the domain of definition of a given analytic function. Analytic continuation often succeeds in defining further values of a function, for example in a new ...
with
Burundi Burundi, officially the Republic of Burundi, is a landlocked country in East Africa. It is located in the Great Rift Valley at the junction between the African Great Lakes region and Southeast Africa, with a population of over 14 million peop ...
. The name "''Tanganyika''" is rendered ''Tangani'a'' in Kibembe, a language spoken in the region. Tanganyika occupies the northeastern extremity of Fizi Territory. It is bordered to the north by the Ambaulu River, separating it from the Bavira Chiefdom in
Uvira Territory Uvira Territory is a Territories of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, territory located in South Kivu, South Kivu Province in the eastern region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Encompassing an area of roughly 3,146 kilometers and with ...
; to the southeast by the Lweba River, which divides it from
Mutambala Mutambala (or M'tambala) is a sector that constitutes one of the four sectors in the Fizi Territory of the South Kivu Province in the eastern part of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Mutambala is situated near Lake Tanganyika, in the west by ...
; and to the southwest by Lulenge and Itombwe of neighboring
Mwenga Territory Mwenga is a territory in the province of South Kivu in the Democratic Republic of Congo The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), also known as the DR Congo, Congo-Kinshasa, or simply the Congo (the last ambiguously also referring to the ...
. As of 2014, the sector had an estimated population of 284,916. It is administratively subdivided into five '' groupements'': Babungwe-Nord, Balala-Nord, Basimukuma-Nord, Basilotcha, and Basimunyaka-Nord. The sector is predominantly inhabited by
Babembe The Bembe people (Babembe in the plural) are an ethnic group based in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo and western Kigoma Region of Tanzania. They live mainly in the territory of Fizi in South Kivu. The Bembe are also in the province ...
, who are indigenous to the area and constitute the majority population in the plains and middle plateaus. Other indigenous communities include the Bazoba, alongside smaller populations of Bafuliiru, Bashi, Barega,
Banyamulenge The Banyamulenge are a community that lives mainly in South Kivu Province, Democratic Republic of the Congo, with roots from mainly Rwanda. The Banyamulenge are culturally and socially related to the Banyarwanda Tutsi found in Rwanda, with mos ...
, Banyidu, and Barundi. The local economy is primarily based on
agriculture Agriculture encompasses crop and livestock production, aquaculture, and forestry for food and non-food products. Agriculture was a key factor in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created ...
and
livestock Livestock are the Domestication, domesticated animals that are raised in an Agriculture, agricultural setting to provide labour and produce diversified products for consumption such as meat, Egg as food, eggs, milk, fur, leather, and wool. The t ...
farming. Tanganyika has been profoundly affected by the
First First most commonly refers to: * First, the ordinal form of the number 1 First or 1st may also refer to: Acronyms * Faint Images of the Radio Sky at Twenty-Centimeters, an astronomical survey carried out by the Very Large Array * Far Infrared a ...
and
Second Congo War The Second Congo War, also known as Africa's World War or the Great War of Africa, was a major conflict that began on 2 August 1998, in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, just over a year after the First Congo War. The war initially erupted ...
s, which significantly disrupted the region and gave rise to enduring insecurity characterized by armed conflict and localized violence.


Geography


Terrain and climate

Tanganyika is characterized by a varied topography that includes a narrow
coastal plain A coastal plain (also coastal plains, coastal lowland, coastal lowlands) is an area of flat, low-lying land adjacent to a sea coast. A fall line commonly marks the border between a coastal plain and an upland area. Formation Coastal plains can f ...
along
Lake Tanganyika Lake Tanganyika ( ; ) is an African Great Lakes, African Great Lake. It is the world's List of lakes by volume, second-largest freshwater lake by volume and the List of lakes by depth, second deepest, in both cases after Lake Baikal in Siberia. ...
and a series of high-altitude mountainous zones forming part of the Mitumba Mountain range, where elevations can reach up to 3,000 meters. The eastern part of the sector, along the lake shore, consists of a tropical coastal plain dominated by grassy
savanna A savanna or savannah is a mixed woodland-grassland (i.e. grassy woodland) biome and ecosystem characterised by the trees being sufficiently widely spaced so that the canopy does not close. The open canopy allows sufficient light to reach th ...
h with scattered
shrub A shrub or bush is a small to medium-sized perennial woody plant. Unlike herbaceous plants, shrubs have persistent woody stems above the ground. Shrubs can be either deciduous or evergreen. They are distinguished from trees by their multiple ...
s. This lowland area features
sand Sand is a granular material composed of finely divided mineral particles. Sand has various compositions but is usually defined by its grain size. Sand grains are smaller than gravel and coarser than silt. Sand can also refer to a textural ...
y soils and a warm, humid climate conducive to the cultivation of subsistence and commercial crops such as
banana A banana is an elongated, edible fruit – botanically a berry – produced by several kinds of large treelike herbaceous flowering plants in the genus '' Musa''. In some countries, cooking bananas are called plantains, distinguishing the ...
s. In contrast, the western highlands are more forested and feature
clay Clay is a type of fine-grained natural soil material containing clay minerals (hydrous aluminium phyllosilicates, e.g. kaolinite, ). Most pure clay minerals are white or light-coloured, but natural clays show a variety of colours from impuriti ...
ey and
alluvial Alluvium (, ) is loose clay, silt, sand, or gravel that has been deposited by running water in a stream bed, on a floodplain, in an alluvial fan or beach, or in similar settings. Alluvium is also sometimes called alluvial deposit. Alluvium is ...
soils, supporting crops like
maize Maize (; ''Zea mays''), also known as corn in North American English, is a tall stout grass that produces cereal grain. It was domesticated by indigenous peoples in southern Mexico about 9,000 years ago from wild teosinte. Native American ...
and
bean A bean is the seed of some plants in the legume family (Fabaceae) used as a vegetable for human consumption or animal feed. The seeds are often preserved through drying (a ''pulse''), but fresh beans are also sold. Dried beans are traditi ...
s. Lake Tanganyika, the world's second-largest freshwater lake and the second deepest in the world, forms the entire eastern boundary of the sector. It serves as a critical source of
fish A fish (: fish or fishes) is an aquatic animal, aquatic, Anamniotes, anamniotic, gill-bearing vertebrate animal with swimming fish fin, fins and craniate, a hard skull, but lacking limb (anatomy), limbs with digit (anatomy), digits. Fish can ...
and plays an important role in regulating the local climate. In addition to the lake, the sector is irrigated by several rivers, including the Ambaulu, Mutambala, Ngovi, Ambumbegi, Lweba, Sangya, Lusenda, Abembwe, Tingitingi, and Lubambo. These waterways contribute to the sector's freshwater resources, though many of the natural springs remain undeveloped and underutilized for domestic and agricultural use. The climate is influenced by its proximity to Lake Tanganyika. The eastern region experiences a tropical climate, while the mountainous west has a more humid climate. Average annual temperatures range between 21 °C and 24.5 °C, with peaks of 30 °C to 32 °C during the dry season. The area experiences a bimodal climate, with a rainy season lasting from October to April and a dry season from May to September.
Annual precipitation In meteorology, precipitation is any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that falls from clouds due to gravitational pull. The main forms of precipitation include drizzle, rain, rain and snow mixed ("sleet" in Commonwealth ...
typically ranges from 900 mm to 1,200 mm, supporting both agriculture and biodiversity across the sector.


Governance and administrative divisions

Tanganyika is administered through a decentralized system of local governance that combines traditional leadership structures with formal political institutions. The sector is headed by a traditional authority known as the ''
Mwami ''Mwami'' () is an honorific title common in parts of Central and East Africa. The title means ''chief'' or ''tribal chief'' in several Bantu languages. It was historically used by kings in several African nations, and is still used for traditi ...
'' (Chief), officially referred to as the ''Chef de secteur'' (Sector Head), who is vested with authority by the provincial government of South Kivu. * The governance of the sector is organized around two primary institutions: the Sector Council (''Conseil de secteur'') and the Sector Executive College (''Collège exécutif du secteur''). The Sector Council functions as the
deliberative body A deliberative assembly is a meeting of members who use parliamentary procedure. Etymology In a speech to the electorate at Bristol in 1774, Edmund Burke described the British Parliament as a "deliberative assembly", and the expression became the ...
and is composed of
councilors A councillor, alternatively councilman, councilwoman, councilperson, or council member, is someone who sits on, votes in, or is a member of, a council. This is typically an elected representative of an electoral district in a municipal or regio ...
elected through universal, direct, and
secret suffrage The secret ballot, also known as the Australian ballot, is a voting method in which a voter's identity in an election or a referendum is anonymous. This forestalls attempts to influence the voter by intimidation, blackmailing, and potential vot ...
in accordance with national electoral laws. This council is responsible for discussing and deciding on issues of local interest and for electing both the Sector Head and Deputy Sector Head (''Chef de secteur adjoint''). Once elected, these officials are formally invested by the
Provincial Governor Provincial may refer to: Government & Administration * Provincial capitals, an administrative sub-national capital of a country * Provincial city (disambiguation) * Provincial minister (disambiguation) * Provincial Secretary, a position in Can ...
, with investiture becoming automatic if not granted within fifteen days. The council operates under the leadership of a bureau made up of a President, vice-president, and Rapporteur, elected according to internal regulations, with efforts made to ensure
gender representation Gender diversity is equitable representation of people of different genders. It most commonly refers to an equitable ratio of men and women, but also includes people of non-binary genders. Gender diversity on corporate boards has been widely ...
. * The Sector Executive College serves as the executive arm of the sector's administration. It includes the Sector Head, Deputy Sector Head, and two
Aldermen An alderman is a member of a municipal assembly or council in many jurisdictions founded upon English law with similar officials existing in the Netherlands (wethouder) and Belgium (schepen). The term may be titular, denoting a high-ranking membe ...
, who are appointed by the Sector Head and approved by the council. Selection is based on merit, credibility, and representativeness of the local communities. The Deputy Sector Head assists with administration and acts in place of the Sector Head when necessary, while the Aldermen carry out executive duties as assigned by decree. * The Sector Head is the principal administrative authority in Tanganyika, with broad responsibilities that include implementing national and provincial laws, maintaining civil records, managing sector finances and budgets, authorizing
tax collection A revenue service, revenue agency or taxation authority is a government agency responsible for the intake of government revenue, including taxes and sometimes non-tax revenue. Depending on the jurisdiction, revenue services may be charged with ...
, and representing the sector in legal and administrative matters. As the head of local regulatory enforcement, the Sector Head also coordinates with national police to maintain public order and security. For purposes of local administration and service delivery, Tanganyika is subdivided into ''groupements'' (groupings), each governed by a ''Chef de groupement'' (Group Leader). These ''groupements'' serve as intermediary administrative units and are further divided into ''localités'' (villages), each led by a ''Chef de localité'' or Chef de village.


History

Tanganyika's historical development is closely linked to the broader ethnogenesis and settlement patterns within Fizi Territory, which is predominantly inhabited by
Babembe The Bembe people (Babembe in the plural) are an ethnic group based in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo and western Kigoma Region of Tanzania. They live mainly in the territory of Fizi in South Kivu. The Bembe are also in the province ...
. According to oral tradition preserved by Bembe
griot A griot (; ; Manding languages, Manding: or (in N'Ko script, N'Ko: , or in French spelling); also spelt Djali; or / ; ) is a West African historian, storyteller, praise singer, poet, and/or musician. Griots are masters of communicatin ...
s, the Babembe trace their origins to a common ancestor named ''Mbondo'' (or ''M'mbondo''), who is believed to have migrated with the Barega (Balega) from the northeast through Urega before reaching the
Itombwe Mountains The Itombwe Mountains (or Itombwe Massif, Plateau) are a range of mountains in the South Kivu province of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). They run along the west shore of the northern part of Lake Tanganyika. They contain a vast area ...
. There, the groups reportedly separated: ''Mbondo'''s descendants—the Babembe—migrated toward
Lake Tanganyika Lake Tanganyika ( ; ) is an African Great Lakes, African Great Lake. It is the world's List of lakes by volume, second-largest freshwater lake by volume and the List of lakes by depth, second deepest, in both cases after Lake Baikal in Siberia. ...
, while his brother Leka returned to Ulega, becoming the progenitor of the Barega. A third sibling, Bangu, is said to have settled in
Maniema Maniema Province (''Jimbo la Maniema'', in Swahili) is one of 26 provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Its capital is Kindu. The 2020 population was estimated to be 2,856,300. Toponymy Henry Morton Stanley explored the area ...
and founded the Bangubangu ethnic group. Before the Babembe's expansion, the region was already home to various ethnic groups, including the Babuyu, Basanze, Babwari, Banyindu, Bazoba, Bagoma, Bakalangwa, Bakeci, Basikamanya and others. These communities were concentrated along the shores of Lake Tanganyika and the surrounding hinterlands. As early as 1881, small Rwandan
Tutsi The Tutsi ( ), also called Watusi, Watutsi or Abatutsi (), are an ethnic group of the African Great Lakes region. They are a Bantu languages, Bantu-speaking ethnic group and the second largest of three main ethnic groups in Rwanda and Burundi ( ...
communities were documented in the Itombwe region, according to geographer George Weis. However, the most significant waves of Tutsi migration occurred between 1959 and 1974, driven by the
Hutu Revolution The Rwandan Revolution, also known as the Hutu Revolution, Social Revolution, or Wind of Destruction (), was a period of ethnic violence in Rwanda from 1959 to 1961 between the Hutu and the Tutsi, two of the three ethnic groups in Rwanda. The r ...
and ethnic persecution in Rwanda. Many Tutsi refugees initially settled in localities such as Bwegera and Mulenge in
Bafuliiru Chiefdom The Bafuliiru Chiefdom (French language, French: ''Chefferie de Bafuliiru''), also known as the Bafulero Chiefdom (''Chefferie de Bafulero''), is a Chiefdoms and sectors of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, chiefdom located in Uvira Territory ...
of
Uvira Territory Uvira Territory is a Territories of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, territory located in South Kivu, South Kivu Province in the eastern region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Encompassing an area of roughly 3,146 kilometers and with ...
before dispersing to the highlands of Fizi Territory, including Tanganyika. Additional waves of migration into the sector included the
Bavira The Vira people or Bavira (in the plural) are one of the most numerous ethnic groups in the Eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. These people are located in the region of Uvira in the East of the country, on the northeast coast of Lake Tangany ...
and Bafuliiru from neighboring Uvira Territory. These groups began settling in Fizi Territory around 1955 in search of fertile land and pasture. The Bavira established communities in areas such as Nemba, Sebelle (south of
Baraka Baraka or Barakah may refer to: * Berakhah or Baraka, in Judaism, a blessing usually recited during a ceremony * Barakah or Baraka, in Islam, the beneficent force from God that flows through the physical and spiritual spheres * Baraka, full ''ḥa ...
), and Kenya and Mboko (north of Baraka, within Tanganyika). The Bafuliiru settled across various localities where they practiced mixed livestock farming, often alongside
Banyarwanda The Banyarwanda (, plural; , singular) are a Bantu peoples, Bantu Ethnolinguistic group, ethnolinguistic supraethnicity native to the northern African Great Lakes region, primarily the modern countries of Rwanda and Burundi. The Banyarwanda ar ...
migrants. Another significant demographic development occurred in the aftermath of the 1972 ethnic massacres in Burundi, which led to the arrival of Barundi refugees—primarily
Hutu The Hutu (), also known as the Abahutu, are a Bantu ethnic group native to the African Great Lakes region. They mainly live in Rwanda, Burundi, and Uganda where they form one of the principal ethnic groups alongside the Tutsi and the Great L ...
. A local census in December 1972 recorded approximately 12,685 Barundi refugees residing in the
Mutambala Mutambala (or M'tambala) is a sector that constitutes one of the four sectors in the Fizi Territory of the South Kivu Province in the eastern part of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Mutambala is situated near Lake Tanganyika, in the west by ...
and Tanganyika sectors. However, the outbreak of the
First Congo War The First Congo War, also known as Africa's First World War, was a Civil war, civil and international military conflict that lasted from 24 October 1996 to 16 May 1997, primarily taking place in Zaire (which was renamed the Democratic Republi ...
and the
Second Congo War The Second Congo War, also known as Africa's World War or the Great War of Africa, was a major conflict that began on 2 August 1998, in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, just over a year after the First Congo War. The war initially erupted ...
severely destabilized the region, causing many Barundi refugees and their descendants to repatriate to Burundi or flee further to
Tanzania Tanzania, officially the United Republic of Tanzania, is a country in East Africa within the African Great Lakes region. It is bordered by Uganda to the northwest; Kenya to the northeast; the Indian Ocean to the east; Mozambique and Malawi to t ...
.


Regional conflicts

Tanganyika has endured persistent security challenges, particularly during and after the
Second Congo War The Second Congo War, also known as Africa's World War or the Great War of Africa, was a major conflict that began on 2 August 1998, in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, just over a year after the First Congo War. The war initially erupted ...
(1998–2003), which plunged much of the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo into sustained violence. The conflict began in August 1998, following the collapse of relations between President
Laurent-Désiré Kabila Laurent-Désiré Kabila (; 27 November 1939 – 16 January 2001) usually known as Laurent Kabila or Kabila the Father (American English, US: ), was a Congolese rebel and politician who served as the third president of the Democratic Republic of t ...
and his former Rwandan and Ugandan allies, whom he accused of plotting a ''
coup d'état A coup d'état (; ; ), or simply a coup , is typically an illegal and overt attempt by a military organization or other government elites to unseat an incumbent leadership. A self-coup is said to take place when a leader, having come to powe ...
'' and interfering in Congolese sovereignty. The rebellion, led by the ''
Rassemblement Congolais pour la Démocratie The Congolese Rally for Democracy (; abbreviated RCD), also known as the Rally for Congolese Democracy, is a political party and a former rebel group that operated in the eastern region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). It was suppo ...
'' (RCD) and backed militarily by
Rwanda Rwanda, officially the Republic of Rwanda, is a landlocked country in the Great Rift Valley of East Africa, where the African Great Lakes region and Southeast Africa converge. Located a few degrees south of the Equator, Rwanda is bordered by ...
,
Uganda Uganda, officially the Republic of Uganda, is a landlocked country in East Africa. It is bordered to the east by Kenya, to the north by South Sudan, to the west by the Democratic Republic of the Congo, to the south-west by Rwanda, and to the ...
, and
Burundi Burundi, officially the Republic of Burundi, is a landlocked country in East Africa. It is located in the Great Rift Valley at the junction between the African Great Lakes region and Southeast Africa, with a population of over 14 million peop ...
, rapidly seized control of much of eastern Congo, including South Kivu Province. Tanganyika became a flashpoint of violence during this period. In October and November 1998, the villages of Swima and Lusambo witnessed brutal massacres, with 22 civilians killed during a market day. Soldiers from the RCD's armed wing, the ''Armée Nationale Congolaise'' (ANC), in coordination with the
Rwandan Patriotic Army The Rwandan Defence Force (RDF, , , ) is the military of Rwanda. Prior to 1994, Rwanda's military was officially known as the Rwandan Armed Forces (FAR), but following the Rwandan Civil War and the Rwandan genocide, the Rwandan Patriotic Front ( ...
(RPA) and Burundian Armed Forces (FAB), accused local residents of supporting
Mayi-Mayi The term Mai-Mai or Mayi-Mayi refers to any kind of community-based militia group active in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) that is formed to defend local communities and territory against other armed groups. Most were formed to resis ...
local-defense militias and responded with indiscriminate violence, including shooting unarmed civilians. Retaliatory attacks escalated in December 1998, culminating on 21 December when nine civilians were executed in Mboko following military operations against Mayi-Mayi forces. Reports documented house-to-house searches and summary executions using both firearms and
bladed weapons An edged weapon, or bladed weapon, is a hand-to-hand combat weapon with a cutting edge. Bladed weapons include swords, daggers, knives, and bayonets. Edged weapons are used to cut, hack, or slash; some edged weapons (such as many kinds of swords) ...
. One of the most devastating incidents in the region occurred between 30 December 1998 and 2 January 1999, in what became known as the Makobola Massacre. Joint forces of the ANC, RPA, and FAB attacked a cluster of villages—including Makobola II, Bangwe, Katuta, Mikunga, and Kashekezi—killing more than 800 civilians. The assassination of President Laurent-Désiré Kabila on 16 January 2001 marked a turning point in the national crisis. His son,
Joseph Kabila Joseph Kabila Kabange ( , ; born 4 June 1971) is a Congolese politician and former military officer who served as the fourth President of the Democratic Republic of the Congo from 2001 to 2019. He took office ten days after the assassination o ...
, assumed the presidency and initiated a series of diplomatic efforts aimed at ending the conflict. The Inter-Congolese Dialogue (ICD), a comprehensive peace process involving government representatives, rebel factions, political opposition, and civil society, sought to lay the groundwork for national reconciliation. The Inter-Congolese Dialogue officially opened on 25 February 2002 in Sun City,
South Africa South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa (RSA), is the Southern Africa, southernmost country in Africa. Its Provinces of South Africa, nine provinces are bounded to the south by of coastline that stretches along the Atlantic O ...
. While a preliminary
power-sharing Power sharing is a practice in conflict resolution where multiple groups distribute political, military, or economic power among themselves according to agreed rules. It can refer to any formal framework or informal pact that regulates the distri ...
agreement was reached on 19 April 2002 between President Joseph Kabila and rebel leader
Jean-Pierre Bemba Jean-Pierre Bemba Gombo (born 4 November 1962) is a Congolese politician and former rebel leader. He currently serves as the Deputy Prime Minister of Ministry of Transport and Channels of Communication, Transportation and Channels of Communicat ...
, the agreement faced resistance from RCD-Goma and prominent opposition factions, notably the
Union for Democracy and Social Progress The Union for Democracy and Social Progress (, UDPS) is a major political party in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). Founded in 1982, amid the one-party rule of Mobutu Sese Seko and his Popular Movement of the Revolution, it is the co ...
(UDPS). Nonetheless, a major breakthrough was achieved on 30 July 2002 when the DRC and Rwanda signed a peace accord in
Pretoria Pretoria ( ; ) is the Capital of South Africa, administrative capital of South Africa, serving as the seat of the Executive (government), executive branch of government, and as the host to all foreign embassies to the country. Pretoria strad ...
. Rwanda agreed to withdraw its troops in exchange for the disarmament and repatriation of Hutu militias, including the
Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda The Democratic Forces for the Liberation of Rwanda (, FDLR; , IDKR) is an armed rebel group active in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. As an ethnic Hutu group opposed to the ethnic Tutsi influence, the FDLR is one of the last fact ...
(FDLR). A similar agreement was signed with Uganda on 6 September 2002 in
Luanda Luanda ( ) is the Capital city, capital and List of cities and towns in Angola, largest city of Angola. It is Angola's primary port, and its major industrial, cultural and urban centre. Located on Angola's northern Atlantic coast, Luanda is Ang ...
, detailing the withdrawal of Ugandan forces and aiming to restore peace, particularly in the embattled
Ituri Ituri Province ( in Swahili language, Swahili) is one of the 21 provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo created in the Subdivisions of the DR Congo#New provinces, 2015 repartitioning. Ituri, Bas-Uele, Haut-Uele, and Tshopo provinces ...
region. By the end of 2002, the phased withdrawal of foreign troops—including forces from Rwanda, Uganda,
Zimbabwe file:Zimbabwe, relief map.jpg, upright=1.22, Zimbabwe, relief map Zimbabwe, officially the Republic of Zimbabwe, is a landlocked country in Southeast Africa, between the Zambezi and Limpopo Rivers, bordered by South Africa to the south, Bots ...
,
Angola Angola, officially the Republic of Angola, is a country on the west-Central Africa, central coast of Southern Africa. It is the second-largest Portuguese-speaking world, Portuguese-speaking (Lusophone) country in both total area and List of c ...
, and
Namibia Namibia, officially the Republic of Namibia, is a country on the west coast of Southern Africa. Its borders include the Atlantic Ocean to the west, Angola and Zambia to the north, Botswana to the east and South Africa to the south; in the no ...
—was underway. These efforts culminated in the signing of the Global and All-Inclusive Agreement in Pretoria on 17 December 2002, which laid the foundation for a transitional power-sharing government and proposed the integration of former rebel factions into a unified national army. Despite these significant diplomatic and institutional advances, security in Tanganyika and the wider eastern DRC remained fragile. Armed groups continued to operate with relative impunity, and the integration of combatants into state structures proved inconsistent and incomplete. On 1 April 2003, delegates at the Inter-Congolese Dialogue ratified the Pretoria Agreement in Sun City, accompanied by detailed frameworks for governance and military reform. The formal inauguration of transitional institutions on 30 June 2003 represented a cautious step toward political stabilization.


Ongoing security problems


Military confrontations with Maï-Maï Yakutumba

Even after the signing of the Global and All-Inclusive Agreement and the inauguration of transitional institutions, insecurity persisted. In July 2008, approximately 40 demonstrators claiming affiliation with a group known as ''Le Bouclier du Congo'' (the Shield of Congo), allied with the Maï-Maï faction led by William Yakutumba, organized a protest in Fizi Territory. The group denounced the deteriorating security situation in parts of the territory and accused local authorities of exacerbating political rivalries in various ''groupements''. Specific references were made to disputes in the Basilotcha ''groupement'' of the Tanganyika sector, and in Kilembwe, the administrative center of the
Lulenge Lulenge constitutes one of the four Sectors of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, sectors within the Fizi Territory of South Kivu, South Kivu Province, situated in the eastern region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. It spans an area of ...
sector, where confusion surrounding local appointments had reportedly led to increased tension and division. The demonstrators demanded the dismissal of the local territorial administration. On 8 November 2010, the town of Yungu, situated approximately 140 kilometers south of
Baraka Baraka or Barakah may refer to: * Berakhah or Baraka, in Judaism, a blessing usually recited during a ceremony * Barakah or Baraka, in Islam, the beneficent force from God that flows through the physical and spiritual spheres * Baraka, full ''ḥa ...
along the shores of Lake Tanganyika, was retaken by the
Armed Forces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo Armed (May, 1941–1964) was an American Thoroughbred gelding race horse who was the American Horse of the Year in 1947 and Champion Older Male Horse in both 1946 and 1947. He was inducted into the National Museum of Racing and Hall of Fame ...
(FARDC) following clashes with Maï-Maï Yakutumba fighters and the FDLR. The area had been under Maï-Maï control since 5 November, prompting civilian displacement toward Kazimiya and Sebele. FARDC subsequently launched search operations in the surrounding lake area and adjacent hills. Reports from the period noted incidents of looting during the operation. The Yakutumba faction admitted to losing two fighters and reported two others wounded. Their relatives claimed the attack was meant to pressure the government to uphold the commitments of the 2008 Goma Agreements, which aimed to secure a ceasefire, facilitate refugee returns, provide a general amnesty, and integrate rebel groups into the national army. The group also accused the government of showing favoritism toward the
National Congress for the Defence of the People The National Congress for the Defence of the People (, CNDP) was a Congolese Rwandan-backed paramilitary rebel group active in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo during the Kivu conflict. Established on 26 July 2006 by Laurent Nkunda ...
(CNDP), a rebel movement supported by Rwanda. In February 2011, nearly 100 former Maï-Maï combatants from the Shikito group emerged from the forests of Fizi Territory and surrendered to authorities in Mboko, the capital of the Tanganyika sector. These fighters were identified as part of the first Tanganyika brigade of the Shikito faction and subsequently integrated into the FARDC. Continued hostilities between FARDC and Maï-Maï Yakutumba led to additional displacement. In September 2011,
Radio Okapi Radio Okapi is a radio network that operates in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. On an annual budget of USD$4.5 million, a staff of 200 provide news and information to the entire urban population of the DRC. Radio Okapi provides programming ...
reported that clashes in the Ubwari Peninsula had prompted significant numbers of civilians to flee to Baraka. The violence triggered shortages of essential goods and steep increases in prices. Fighting between FARDC and Maï-Maï forces resumed on 24 October 2011 and lasted several days. Calm was restored to the region by 4 November, but the toll was high, with dozens of fatalities reported. Humanitarian assessments indicated that fewer than 10% of the estimated 6,000 displaced residents had returned to their homes in the aftermath. Similar figures were observed in the village of Kabumbe, according to human rights organizations that conducted field visits in early November. Military operations against rebel factions continued in 2012. In September of that year, FARDC forces reportedly killed around ten Maï-Maï fighters loyal to Colonel Mayele during offensives launched in the highlands of Tanganyika. The commander of the 1004th FARDC regiment stated that military equipment had been recovered during the operation, although FARDC sustained casualties. Maï-Maï elements, previously concentrated and visible in the hills above Mboko, ultimately retreated into the surrounding highlands. Areas such as Abeka and Swima, which had previously been under Maï-Maï control, were cleared by government forces.


Local intercommunal violence

Aside from armed conflict, the region also experienced instances of
communal violence Communal violence is a form of violence that is perpetrated across ethnic or communal lines, where the violent parties feel solidarity for their respective groups and victims are chosen based upon group membership. The term includes conflicts, ri ...
. On 30 June 2013, in the village of Ake, Tanganyika, two individuals suspected of
witchcraft Witchcraft is the use of Magic (supernatural), magic by a person called a witch. Traditionally, "witchcraft" means the use of magic to inflict supernatural harm or misfortune on others, and this remains the most common and widespread meanin ...
—a man and a woman—were killed by local youths wielding sticks and machetes, who also ransacked their homes. The attack followed the death of a 17-year-old boy, which led villagers to accuse his grandfather and aunt of
supernatural Supernatural phenomena or entities are those beyond the Scientific law, laws of nature. The term is derived from Medieval Latin , from Latin 'above, beyond, outside of' + 'nature'. Although the corollary term "nature" has had multiple meanin ...
involvement. Local civil society organizations criticized the inadequate response by administrative and police authorities. According to Radio Okapi, this incident was one of three instances in which residents had taken justice into their own hands in Fizi Territory over a three-month period, a trend attributed to the absence of effective state authority and the resurgence of armed groups in the region. The NGO ''Solidarité des Volontaires pour l'Humanité'' (SVH) reported that by November 2013, at least fifty
lynchings Lynching is an extrajudicial killing by a group. It is most often used to characterize informal public executions by a mob in order to punish an alleged or convicted transgressor or to intimidate others. It can also be an extreme form of in ...
had been recorded across the territory, with Tanganyika accounting for 30 of those deaths. Most of the victims were elderly women accused of witchcraft.


Sustained fighting with Maï-Maï Yakutumba

In parallel with these incidents of communal violence, Tanganyika faced ongoing threats from rebel movements. In January 2014, the Maï-Maï Yakutumba reestablished its presence in the Madjaga forest near the sector. Despite previous military operations, Yakutumba remained active in the region and resistant to the Disarmament, Demobilization, Repatriation, Reintegration and Resettlement (DDRRR) process. His group, known formally as the ''Parti d'Action pour la Reconstruction du Kongo – Force Armée Alleluiya'' (Parc-Faal), demanded political recognition and amnesty for its members. Yakutumba also called for the release of several detained political allies held in prisons across
Uvira Uvira is a city strategically located in the South Kivu Province of the eastern region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Covering approximately 16 square kilometers and with an estimated population of 726,000 as of 2024, it borders Baful ...
,
Bukavu Bukavu is a city in eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), lying at the extreme south-western edge of Lake Kivu, west of Cyangugu in Rwanda, and separated from it by the outlet of the Ruzizi River. It is the capital of the South Kivu P ...
,
Kalemie Kalemie, formerly Albertville or Albertstad, is a city on the western shore of Lake Tanganyika in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The Lukuga River, that drains Lake Tanganyika to the Lualaba River, runs through the city. Kalemie is the capi ...
,
Lubumbashi Lubumbashi ( , ; former ; former ) is the second-largest Cities of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, city in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, located in the country's southeasternmost part, along the border with Zambia. The capital ...
, and
Kinshasa Kinshasa (; ; ), formerly named Léopoldville from 1881–1966 (), is the Capital city, capital and Cities of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, largest city of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Kinshasa is one of the world's fastest-grow ...
. In addition to the Yakutumba faction, local authorities acknowledged the presence of other armed groups in the sector, notably those led by Bwakasala and Mayele. On 15 June 2014, the FARDC launched a successful operation to retake several lakeside towns that had fallen under the control of the ''Coalition Nationale pour la Défense du Congo'', later renamed the '' Coalition Nationale du Peuple pour la Souveraineté du Congo'' (CNPSC), a coalition of approximately a dozen Maï-Maï factions led by Yakutumba operating in South Kivu. These towns—including Yungu, Talama, Kakono, and Kiricho—had been briefly occupied by the CNPSC after the displacement of naval units stationed in the region. The FARDC's 1004th and 1012th regiments regained control after heavy fighting, which resulted in at least two fatalities among government forces. The rebel forces retreated into the Ngandja forest and surrounding mountain caves. Subsequent fighting in Talama on 22 June 2014 led to the deaths of five FARDC soldiers, with four more wounded. The army captured four militiamen and confiscated a PKM weapon, four
AK-47 The AK-47, officially known as the Avtomat Kalashnikova (; also known as the Kalashnikov or just AK), is an assault rifle that is chambered for the 7.62×39mm cartridge. Developed in the Soviet Union by Russian small-arms designer Mikhail Kala ...
rifles, and a box of
ammunition Ammunition, also known as ammo, is the material fired, scattered, dropped, or detonated from any weapon or weapon system. The term includes both expendable weapons (e.g., bombs, missiles, grenades, land mines), and the component parts of oth ...
. Despite this, Maï-Maï Yakutumba spokesperson Pacifique Mutiki claimed that nine FARDC troops were killed and 18 wounded, while confirming two injuries on their side. FARDC units advanced southward and reached Wimbi, near the South Kivu–Katanga border. On 6 November 2015, armed bandits ambushed a FARDC unit on the Baraka-Uvira road between the villages of Ngalula and Bangwe Makobola, killing a captain and triggering security operations across the Tanganyika middle plateaus. In response, FARDC troops began a manhunt in this already volatile region, where armed groups—suspected to be Maï-Maï militias or Burundian '' Forces Nationales de Libération'' (FNL) rebels—were still harassing civilians. The area was reportedly infiltrated by Maï-Maï and FNL elements. In July 2016, reports surfaced of armed men speaking
Kirundi Kirundi (), also known as Rundi, is a Bantu language and the national language of Burundi. It is mutually intelligible with Kinyarwanda, the national language of Rwanda, and the two form parts of the Rwanda-Rundi dialect continuum spoken in Buru ...
in the Bijombo highlands (Uvira Territory) recruiting youth from the Lusenda refugee camp. These individuals, affiliated with the Burundian rebel group '' Forces Républicaines du Burundi'' (FOREBU), were believed to be conducting cross-border operations and recruitment in Tanganyika. Several suspected recruits were arrested in the area, including three in Tanganyika. On 1 January, a Maï-Maï Yakutumba incursion into Yungu led to the death of a FARDC soldier and disrupted local New Year celebrations. The rebels attacked from both the hills and Lake Tanganyika, initiating two days of fighting. Though FARDC regained control, the event heightened fears of further violence. On 29 June 2017, CNPSC forces attacked Lulimba, forcing the FARDC to abandon their positions and allowing rebels to loot weapons and spread panic in nearby towns such as Misisi and Kilembwe. On 23 September, Maï-Maï Yakutumba forces seized several villages near Mboko, including Nundu, Kabumbe, Lusambo, Swima, and Munene. On 25 September, fierce fighting erupted as the FARDC launched operations to recapture Mboko, which had been under rebel control for two days. Six militiamen were reportedly killed. During this time, daily life in Mboko ground to a halt: shops, schools, and humanitarian operations were suspended, and civilians remained indoors, fearing military retaliation. The FARDC retook Mboko on 1 October, forcing the rebels to withdraw without further combat. This recapture was seen as a strategic victory, as it secured both National Road No. 5 and access to Lake Tanganyika while reducing the threat to the nearby city of Uvira. However, tensions remained high. A 48-hour ultimatum issued by the FARDC on 30 September demanded that Yakutumba disarm. In response, Yakutumba rejected the terms, citing broken promises by the government, including the failure to reintegrate his fighters who had previously surrendered. These grievances continued to fuel resistance and hinder the success of peace initiatives in the sector.


Multi-factional violence

In February 2018, FARDC escalated its campaign against Yakutumba with a large-scale offensive in the Sokola 2 operational sector in southern South Kivu. After ten days of combat, the army reported 89 deaths, including 83 rebel fighters and six FARDC personnel. General Philémon Yav, commander of the operation, announced that almost all areas previously controlled by Yakutumba—including the Ubwari Peninsula and the Tanganyika lakeshore from
Kalemie Kalemie, formerly Albertville or Albertstad, is a city on the western shore of Lake Tanganyika in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The Lukuga River, that drains Lake Tanganyika to the Lualaba River, runs through the city. Kalemie is the capi ...
to Uvira—had been recaptured. The operation led to the capture of 120 militiamen, including senior commanders such as Ekanda Saidi Dragila, Yakutumba's marine commander. Despite these gains, Yakutumba himself, reportedly injured, evaded capture and fled into the bush. South Kivu's vice-governor, Hilaire Kasusa Kikobya Baruani, expressed satisfaction with the military's success and emphasized efforts to re-establish state authority in liberated zones through police deployment and the reinstallation of local governance structures. However, the region remained volatile, with lake traffic suspended and displaced residents advised not to return immediately. On 15 February 2018, FARDC forces captured more than fifteen Yakutumba combatants in the Ngandja forest and seized a stockpile of weapons, such as
submachine guns A submachine gun (SMG) is a magazine-fed automatic carbine designed to fire handgun cartridges. The term "submachine gun" was coined by John T. Thompson, the inventor of the Thompson submachine gun, to describe its design concept as an automa ...
and infantry support arms, though the group's leader managed to escape. In June 2018, new violence erupted between Twirwaneho militiamen—primarily Banyamulenge—and a coalition of Bafuliiru, Banyindu, and
Babembe The Bembe people (Babembe in the plural) are an ethnic group based in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo and western Kigoma Region of Tanzania. They live mainly in the territory of Fizi in South Kivu. The Bembe are also in the province ...
armed groups. Clashes were driven by ethnic tensions, disputes over land, and competition for customary authority. The Twirwaneho received reinforcements from a Rwandan armed group based in Bijabo, located in the highlands of the Tanganyika sector, and established their base in Masango with support from a Burundian rebel faction. The conflict resulted in extensive displacement, the burning of homes, loss of livestock, and the depopulation of several northern Bijombo villages. Many residents fled to FARDC-controlled areas seeking protection. In response to growing insecurity, FARDC's Sokola 2 command demanded the disarmament of all local and foreign armed groups operating in Uvira Territory and the surrounding highlands on 11 February 2019. Several groups expressed a willingness to disarm, including Maï-Maï leader Trésor Ebuela wa Seba (alias Ebuela Mtetezi), who appeared in Mikenge (Mwenga Territory) with 300 fighters ready to lay down arms. Three other local factions in the Tanganyika sector also indicated a desire to surrender through MONUSCO in Lusenda. However, the region remained entangled in transnational conflict dynamics, as numerous Congolese factions were allied with foreign rebel groups, including
RED-Tabara Resistance for Rule of Law in Burundi (French language, French: ''Résistance pour un État de Droit au Burundi'', Abbreviation: RED-Tabara) is a Burundian tutsi rebel militia that was formed in 2015 in the wake of the Burundian unrest (2015–2018 ...
, FNL, and FOREBU—Burundian and Rwandan forces that FARDC warned to vacate Congolese territory or face military action. On 28 February, the FARDC transferred four child soldiers to MONUSCO in Uvira — three were linked to the local Kihebe and Yakutumba militias, while the fourth, a Burundian, was part of
Kayumba Nyamwasa Faustin Kayumba Nyamwasa (born 1958) is a Rwandan former Lieutenant general who formerly was the Chief of Staff of the Rwandan Army from 1998 to 2002. He was also head of Rwandan intelligence from 1998 to 2002 and served as Rwanda's ambassador to ...
's Rwandan rebel faction. The children, aged 13 to 16, stated they had been forcibly conscripted and deployed in combat zones in both Tanganyika and Uvira's middle plateaus. On 9 May, violent clashes erupted in the Balala-Nord ''groupement'' between a faction led by Ebuela and Banyamulenge militiamen. The fighting was reportedly triggered by the killing of a village chief from the Banyindu community by Banyamulenge fighters. In retaliation, Ebuela's group attacked multiple villages, including Mikalati, Kanihura, Kamombo, Kabara, Oma, and Alumya. The violence resulted in the mass displacement of civilians to the Itombwe (Mwenga Territory) and
Mutambala Mutambala (or M'tambala) is a sector that constitutes one of the four sectors in the Fizi Territory of the South Kivu Province in the eastern part of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Mutambala is situated near Lake Tanganyika, in the west by ...
sectors. Local civil society organization Group of Voices of the Voiceless (''Groupe des Voix des Sans Voix'', GVSV) reported that at least 20 people were killed. Sokola 2 military officials acknowledged that local police forces were overwhelmed, prompting army intervention. While the military later claimed to have brought the situation under control. Further violence unfolded on 15 October 2019, when Mai-Mai militias launched an assault on FARDC positions in and around Minembwe-centre. Although the attack failed, the conflict expanded rapidly as armed groups from Mutambala overwhelmed several army posts and torched the village of Kalonge. These events triggered a large-scale population displacement and led MONUSCO to reinforce its presence in November by deploying ''Static Combat Detachments (SCD)'' to strategic hotspots, including Bijombo and Kamombo in Tanganyika, supplementing the main base at Minembwe. In June 2020, fighting intensified in nearby Mwenga Territory, with spillover effects reaching Tanganyika. On 4 June, Twirwaneho attacked a FARDC position in Tuwetuwe, resulting in the deaths of two militia members and injuries to three others, including one civilian. As fighting escalated, many residents fled toward the forest or nearby towns such as Mikenge and Kipupu. Although the army claimed to have repelled the attack, doubts remained among the local population about the state's ability to provide lasting protection. Some families fled as far as Tanganyika to escape the violence. Simultaneously, Tanganyika's highlands became the site of additional hostilities involving Michel Rukunda Makanika, a mutinous ex-army colonel who had taken control of parts of Kamombo. While Makanika denied formal alliances with the Gumino and Twirwaneho factions, all three shared grievances against FARDC, accusing it of failing to prevent village burnings, killings, and livestock theft. Makanika issued a public call for peace and urged all armed groups to disarm, though his motives were viewed with suspicion by rivals such as the Maï-Maï Biloze Bishambuke, who accused the coalition of concealing ulterior objectives. On 20 June, violence escalated further when a coalition of Ngumino, Makanika, and Androïd forces launched a coordinated surprise attack on FARDC positions in Kamombo, located in Balala-Nord. The assault resulted in the deaths of two Congolese soldiers and forced the FARDC to withdraw toward Mikenge to avoid harming civilians in densely populated areas. This retreat led to renewed fear among residents, particularly those displaced and living near the MONUSCO base, prompting many to flee again—especially toward Kipupu. The same day, additional clashes erupted in Kalingi (north of Minembwe) and Kakenge (south of Minembwe). In Kalingi, Ngumino fighters engaged in deadly combat with the Maï-Maï Ebuela, resulting in three fatalities. In Kakenge, a confrontation between Ngumino and the Maï-Maï Biloze Bishambuke tragically led to the death of a 7-year-old child.


Economy

Tanganyika is largely agrarian.
Agriculture Agriculture encompasses crop and livestock production, aquaculture, and forestry for food and non-food products. Agriculture was a key factor in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created ...
is the main livelihood activity, supported by fertile soils suitable for crops such as
cassava ''Manihot esculenta'', common name, commonly called cassava, manioc, or yuca (among numerous regional names), is a woody shrub of the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae, native to South America, from Brazil, Paraguay and parts of the Andes. Although ...
,
maize Maize (; ''Zea mays''), also known as corn in North American English, is a tall stout grass that produces cereal grain. It was domesticated by indigenous peoples in southern Mexico about 9,000 years ago from wild teosinte. Native American ...
,
peanut The peanut (''Arachis hypogaea''), also known as the groundnut, goober (US), goober pea, pindar (US) or monkey nut (UK), is a legume crop grown mainly for its edible seeds. It is widely grown in the tropics and subtropics by small and large ...
s,
rice Rice is a cereal grain and in its Domestication, domesticated form is the staple food of over half of the world's population, particularly in Asia and Africa. Rice is the seed of the grass species ''Oryza sativa'' (Asian rice)—or, much l ...
, and yam. These crops are used for local consumption and commercial trade, particularly through the Basimukuma-Nord market, which supplies neighboring regions, including
Uvira Uvira is a city strategically located in the South Kivu Province of the eastern region of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Covering approximately 16 square kilometers and with an estimated population of 726,000 as of 2024, it borders Baful ...
and parts of
Burundi Burundi, officially the Republic of Burundi, is a landlocked country in East Africa. It is located in the Great Rift Valley at the junction between the African Great Lakes region and Southeast Africa, with a population of over 14 million peop ...
. However,
agricultural production Agriculture encompasses crop and livestock production, aquaculture, and forestry for food and non-food products. Agriculture was a key factor in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food ...
was significantly disrupted between 1996 and 2002 due to ongoing conflict, land disputes, disruption of planting cycles, and occupation of farmlands by armed groups such as the Mai-Mai and Raïa Mutomboki. Despite these challenges, Basimukuma-Nord is still recognized for its agricultural potential and is often regarded as a key food-producing area within Fizi Territory.
Livestock Livestock are the Domestication, domesticated animals that are raised in an Agriculture, agricultural setting to provide labour and produce diversified products for consumption such as meat, Egg as food, eggs, milk, fur, leather, and wool. The t ...
farming, once an important part of the sector's economy, has declined sharply due to systematic looting during successive conflicts. Armed actors—including militia groups, military personnel, and criminal elements—targeted livestock herds, resulting in the near-collapse of this economic sector. Today, recovery in both agriculture and livestock remains constrained by persistent insecurity and limited infrastructural investment.


Demographics

Tanganyika has an estimated population of 284,916 as of 2014, with a population density of approximately 47 inhabitants per square kilometer.
Babembe The Bembe people (Babembe in the plural) are an ethnic group based in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo and western Kigoma Region of Tanzania. They live mainly in the territory of Fizi in South Kivu. The Bembe are also in the province ...
, who are indigenous to the region, constitute about three-quarters of the population and are the majority both in the plains and on the mid-altitude plateaus. Other indigenous communities include the Bazoba, along with smaller groups such as the Bafuliiru, Bashi, Barega,
Banyamulenge The Banyamulenge are a community that lives mainly in South Kivu Province, Democratic Republic of the Congo, with roots from mainly Rwanda. The Banyamulenge are culturally and socially related to the Banyarwanda Tutsi found in Rwanda, with mos ...
, Banyidu, and Barundi. The sector has limited health and educational infrastructure; for example, in the ''groupement'' of Basimukuma-Nord alone, there are two health centers, two health posts, eight primary schools, and four secondary schools.


Humanitarian situation


Refugee influx and related strains

Since 2015, Tanganyika Sector has hosted a significant number of Burundian refugees fleeing political instability in their home country. On 11 May 2015, the Congolese National Commission for Refugees (''Commission Nationale pour les Réfugiés'', CNR) reported that out of 7,836 registered Burundian refugees, 462 had received biometric identification cards at the
UNHCR The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) is a United Nations agency mandated to aid and Humanitarian protection, protect refugees, Internally displaced person, forcibly displaced communities, and Statelessness, s ...
transit center A transport hub is a place where passengers and cargo are exchanged between vehicles and/or between transport modes. Public transport hubs include railway stations, rapid transit stations, bus stops, tram stops, airports, and ferry slips. ...
in Kavimvira, Uvira Territory. These individuals were transferred to the Lusenda refugee camp, located in Tongo within the Tanganyika sector. The displacement was triggered by pre-election tensions in Burundi as President
Pierre Nkurunziza Pierre Nkurunziza (18 December 1964 – 8 June 2020) was a Burundian politician who served as the ninth president of Burundi for almost 15 years from August 2005 until his death in June 2020. A member of the Hutu, Hutu ethnic group, Nkurunziza ...
sought a controversial third term, sparking widespread violence. However, the sudden arrival of refugees in
Kamanyola Kamanyola is one of the ''groupements'' (Chiefdoms and sectors of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, groupings) within the Ngweshe Chiefdom of the Walungu Territory. It is located in the Ruzizi Plain in the South Kivu, South Kivu Province of ...
, Lubarika, Katogota,
Luvungi Luvungi, also known as Itara-Luvungi, is one of the ''groupements'' (administrative groupings) within the Bafuliiru Chiefdom in the Uvira Territory of South Kivu Province in the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. Located on the Ruzizi Pl ...
, and Luberizi placed considerable pressure on host communities, particularly in areas already affected by agricultural setbacks such as cassava mosaic disease. Civil society organizations, such as the Association Against Evil and for Youth Empowerment (''Association Contre le Mal et pour l'Encadrement de la Jeunesse'', ACMEJ), raised concerns about the inability of local households to support refugees, many of whom arrived without food or supplies. A humanitarian delegation from UNHCR visited Lusenda on 25 May 2015 to assess conditions at the camp, which at the time lacked essential services such as potable water, adequate shelter, lighting, food variety, and security. In response to overcrowding, the CNR identified three additional sites on 19 July—Lulinda and Lubumba in Tanganyika, and Mulongwe in
Mutambala Mutambala (or M'tambala) is a sector that constitutes one of the four sectors in the Fizi Territory of the South Kivu Province in the eastern part of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Mutambala is situated near Lake Tanganyika, in the west by ...
—to accommodate around 7,000 refugees who could not be housed at Lusenda. These new locations were chosen for their proximity to rivers, schools, and healthcare facilities. Frustration over unfulfilled promises led to public protests. On 17 May 2016, residents blocked traffic on National Road No. 5 between Uvira and Baraka, demanding compensation for the land given to the refugee camp and the reinstatement of free healthcare and school subsidies that had previously been supported by the UNHCR. Protesters highlighted unmet commitments to rehabilitate key infrastructure, especially the 54-kilometer agricultural access road between Lusenda and Abala. Demonstrators threatened to dismantle the Lusenda camp if their demands were not addressed. Sector Chief John Mulondani, together with traditional leaders from the Balala-Nord, Basimunyaka-Nord, and Basimukuma-Nord ''groupements'', mediated the crisis and managed to restore calm. Nonetheless, in October 2017, the FARDC expressed concern about the camp's proximity to the Burundian border and suggested relocating the refugees farther inland for security reasons. Efforts to promote community cohesion culminated in the rehabilitation of the ''Tout Jeune de Lusenda'' stadium, a project funded by the UNHCR and completed on 20 February 2019. Measuring 105 meters by 65 meters, the stadium was intended to serve as a communal space for Burundian refugees, local Congolese youth, humanitarian staff, and MONUSCO peacekeepers, notably those from the Pakistani contingent. The opening event featured a football match between Umoja FC, a Congolese youth team from Lusenda, and Indamba, a team composed of Burundian refugees. On 15 October 2019, clashes erupted in the highlands of Fizi Territory, particularly around Minembwe-centre, as Mai-Mai fighters launched an unsuccessful assault on FARDC positions. However, the violence rapidly expanded, with militiamen from Mutambala overwhelming several army posts before attacking and burning the village of Kalonge. The entire populations of Kalonge, Kaseke, Rutigita, and Irumba fled toward Minembwe-centre, while local civil society estimated that nearly 500 civilians—mainly women and children—escaped the forest fighting and sought refuge in Mikenge (Mwenga Territory). The displacement was part of a broader pattern of forced movement linked to violent confrontations in towns such as Mikalati, Bichogo, Nyamara, and Murugondo in the Balala-Nord ''groupement'' of the Tanganyika sector. Approximately 400 people took refuge at the MONUSCO Temporary Operational Base in Mikenge. According to a humanitarian briefing by OCHA, access to those conflict-affected areas had remained extremely limited due to insecurity, while urgent needs for food, shelter, health services, and household items had largely gone unmet. Further escalation occurred on 4 November, when inter-ethnic violence erupted in the village of Kirumba, located in the highlands of Bijombo. Clashes between the Gumino fighters and Mai-Mai militias resulted in house burnings, retaliatory attacks, and the killing of civilians, including a local church leader and two of his brothers. The violence triggered mass displacement among the Fuliiru,
Nyindu Nyindu is an endangered Bantu language The Bantu languages (English: , Proto-Bantu language, Proto-Bantu: *bantʊ̀), or Ntu languages are a language family of about 600 languages of Central Africa, Central, Southern Africa, Southern, East ...
, and
Banyamulenge The Banyamulenge are a community that lives mainly in South Kivu Province, Democratic Republic of the Congo, with roots from mainly Rwanda. The Banyamulenge are culturally and socially related to the Banyarwanda Tutsi found in Rwanda, with mos ...
communities. Some victims fled into the forest, while others moved toward the village of Mibula in the Babungwe-Nord ''groupement'', within Tanganyika.


Internally displaced persons

In May 2019, violent clashes between
Mai-Mai The term Mai-Mai or Mayi-Mayi refers to any kind of community-based militia group active in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) that is formed to defend local communities and territory against other armed groups. Most were formed to resis ...
militias and Ngomino community groups led to the displacement of over 2,494 households from highland villages to lower-altitude regions along the
Lake Tanganyika Lake Tanganyika ( ; ) is an African Great Lakes, African Great Lake. It is the world's List of lakes by volume, second-largest freshwater lake by volume and the List of lakes by depth, second deepest, in both cases after Lake Baikal in Siberia. ...
shoreline, particularly within the ''groupements'' of Basimukuma-Nord, Basimunyaka-Nord, and Balala-Nord. A joint assessment conducted by
United Nations The United Nations (UN) is the Earth, global intergovernmental organization established by the signing of the Charter of the United Nations, UN Charter on 26 June 1945 with the stated purpose of maintaining international peace and internationa ...
agencies and humanitarian organizations from 25 October to 1 November 2022, accentuated the intensifying humanitarian needs, especially in the wake of further military operations and inter-group violence that forced the displacement of approximately 19,815 people (about 3,963 households) between August and October 2022. Many of these people fled violence in ''localités'' such as Bigaragara, Magunga, and Kalonge, with some relocating to the Mitumba Mountains due to environmental familiarity. Access to displaced populations remains a major logistical challenge. The main road linking Fizi Centre to Lusuku is only partially rehabilitated, leaving nearly 20 kilometers in poor condition, while many affected villages are only reachable by hours of hiking. Humanitarian actors including the ''Association de Lutte contre la Pauvreté dans le Fizi'' (ALPF), the
International Committee of the Red Cross The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) is a humanitarian organization based in Geneva, Switzerland, and is a three-time Nobel Prize laureate. The organization has played an instrumental role in the development of rules of war and ...
(ICRC), HEKS-EPER, and
International Medical Corps International Medical Corps is a global, nonprofit, humanitarian aid organization that provides emergency medical services, healthcare training and capacity building to those affected by disaster, disease or conflict. It seeks to strengthen med ...
(IMC) are engaged in relief efforts, but shelter, water, and basic service provision remain inadequate. Displaced persons are primarily hosted by local families or live in informal sites under precarious conditions. Security remains fragile, with some villages under the protection of FARDC, while others are policed by local self-defense groups. Incidents of
theft Theft (, cognate to ) is the act of taking another person's property or services without that person's permission or consent with the intent to deprive the rightful owner of it. The word ''theft'' is also used as a synonym or informal shor ...
,
extortion Extortion is the practice of obtaining benefit (e.g., money or goods) through coercion. In most jurisdictions it is likely to constitute a criminal offence. Robbery is the simplest and most common form of extortion, although making unfounded ...
,
gender-based violence Gender-related violence or gender-based violence (GBV) refers to any kind of violence directed against people due to their gender or gender identification, culture may have a role to play, being lower in egalitarianism societies and higher, sexist ...
, and the killing of civilians have been reported, exacerbating the vulnerability of the population and impeding their safe return to their places of origin.


References

{{coord missing, Democratic Republic of the Congo Lake Tanganyika Populated places in South Kivu