T-90A

The T-90 is a third-generation Russian main battle tank developed from, and designed to replace the T-72. It uses a 125mm 2A46 smoothbore main gun, the 1A45T fire-control system, an upgraded engine, and gunner's thermal sight. Standard protective measures include a blend of steel and composite armour, smoke grenade dischargers, Kontakt-5 explosive reactive armour (ERA) and the Shtora infrared anti-tank guided missile (ATGM) jamming system.

The T-90 was designed and built by Uralvagonzavod, in Nizhny Tagil, Russia. It entered service with the Russian army in 1992.

Development

The T-90 has its origins in a Soviet-era program aimed at developing a replacement for the T-64, T-72 and T-80 series of main battle tanks (MBT). The T-72 platform was selected as the basis for the new generation of tank owing to its cost-effectiveness, simplicity and automotive qualities. The Kartsev-Venediktov Design Bureau from Nizhny Tagil was responsible for the design work and prepared two parallel proposals—the ''Object 188'', which was a relatively simple upgrade of the existing T-72B tank (''Object 184''), and the far more advanced ''Object 187''—only vaguely related to the T-72 series and incorporating major improvements to the hull and turret design, armor, powerplant and armament. Development work was approved in 1986 and the first prototypes were completed by 1988. The vehicles resulting from the ''Object 187'' program have not been declassified to this date.

The Object 188 was engineered by a team under V.N. Venediktov. The biggest change was the integration of the T-80U's 1A45 fire-control system. The Object 188 was initially designated as the T-72BM. The first four of these were delivered for trials in January 1989. An improved variant (called Upgraded T-72B) was delivered beginning in June 1990. In March 1991, the Soviet Ministry of Defense recommended that the Army adopt the Object 188. Work on the Object 187 was simultaneously stopped for unknown reasons.

Production and service history

Russian tank production dwindled in the years before and after the breakup of the Soviet Union. The Kharkov tank plant belonged to the newly independent Ukraine, the Chelyabinsk Tractor Plant ended production in 1989, and Kirov in Leningrad in 1990. In the two remaining tank plants at Omsk and Nizhni-Tagil, state orders all but ceased in 1992. Around the same time, the Russian Ministry of Defense decided it would commit to eventually producing just one tank type.

During the 1980s, the Soviet military had ordered T-64s, T-72s and T-80s, then in simultaneous production from rival tank design firms. Though all three tanks had similar characteristics, they each required different components, which contributed to the Army's logistical burden. Though both Nizhni-Tagil's T-90 and Omsk's T-80U had their merits, the T-80's gas turbine engine was notorious for its high fuel consumption and poor reliability. Additionally, Russian T-80s suffered heavy losses in their first combat use during the First Chechen War. Meanwhile, the T-90 was spared media criticism as it was not deployed in Chechnya, and its new name distanced it from the T-72, which was also lost in large numbers in the conflict.

In January 1996, Colonel General Aleksandr Galkin, chief of the Main Armor Directorate of the Russian Ministry of Defense, said the Russian Armed Forces would phase out T-80 production in favor of the T-90 (Galkin reversed his position later that year, claiming the T-80U was a superior tank). Production of the T-80 at Omsk persisted until 2001, mainly for the export market.

The principal upgrade in the T-90 is the incorporation of a slightly modified form of the T-80U's more sophisticated 1A45T ''Irtysh'' fire control system and an upgraded V-84MS multi-fuel engine developing 840 hp (618 kW). The T-90 was manufactured at the Uralvagonzavod factory in Nizhny Tagil, with low-level production being carried out since 1992 and virtually ceasing towards the end of the 1990s for the native market. Around 120 T-90 tanks were delivered to the Russian Ground Forces before production of an upgraded version was resumed in 2004.

By September 1995, some 107 T-90 tanks had been produced, located in the Siberian Military District. Later, another U.S. report said that "..with only 150 built by mid-1998, the Siberian Military District's 21st Motor Rifle Division received ome ofthese MBTs and formed a tank regiment (T-90s were also issued to the 5th Don Guards Tank Division in Buryatia)." However, the 21st MRD had already been reduced to the status of a motor-rifle brigade by this time, and then was reduced to a storage base in 1997.

Facing tapering domestic orders, Uralvagonzavod received government approval to export the T-90 in the mid-1990s. The designers at Uralvagonzavod created a new, welded turret that offered improvements in protection and internal space in the same period. In 1997, India signaled interest in the T-90 in response to Pakistan's acquisition of 320 Ukrainian T-80UD tanks. India's Heavy Vehicles Factory in Avadi was already license-manufacturing the T-72 under the name "Ajeya".

The first 42 complete Indian tanks were delivered in 2001 and were designated T-90S (''Object 188S''), still equipped with the older cast turrets of the early series (this exhausted the remaining stocks of cast turrets warehoused at Nizhny Tagil) and powered by the V-84 engine making 840 hp (618 kW). In 2002, 82 vehicles were delivered, now equipped with the new welded turrets and the V-92S2 engine, generating 1,000 hp (735 kW). The initial contract stipulated the following batch of 186 tanks, now officially called Bhishma, to be completed in India from Russian-supplied kits, and then gradually replaced with domestically manufactured parts. Delays in domestic production compelled the Indian authorities to place an additional order for 127 complete vehicles from Uralvagonzavod.

In 2005 the Russian army resumed delivery of the T-90, requesting the "original" specification for the vehicle with a cast turret. But with the new order numbering 14 tanks, and the large capital investment required to set up production of new cast turrets, the Russian Ministry of Defence agreed on a new configuration very close to the Indian T-90S, which was expeditiously accepted into service without any trials as the ''Object 188A1'' or T-90A. 2005 saw delivery of 18 new tanks – enough to equip approximately five tank platoons. These new Russian tanks were powered by the V-92S2 engine, carried a T01-K05 ''Buran-M'' gunner's sight (passive-active night-vision channel with an EPM-59G ''Mirage-K'' matrix and a maximum observation distance of 1,800 m) and were protected by the most recent Kontakt-5 reactive armor with 4S22 explosive tiles.

The years 2006–2007 saw the delivery of 31 T-90A tanks each, now fitted with entirely passive ESSA main gunner's sights supplied by Peleng in Belarus and using the 2nd-generation thermal camera Catherine-FC from Thales, and improved 4S23 ERA tiles. The joint venture established on the basis of JSC Volzhsky Optical and Mechanical Plant (VOMZ) and Thales Optronics, produced Catherine-FC thermal imaging devices, which were further used to develop "ESSA", "PLISA" and "SOSNA-U" sighting systems produced for the Russian armoured vehicles, including T-72B3 tanks and export versions of T-90S (exported to India, Algeria and Azerbaijan). Since 2012, Russia was able to produce 3rd-generation Catherine-XP cameras based on QWIP matrix technology.

In 2012, the Russian-made commander combined sample supervisory-sighting system ''"T01-K04DT/Agat-MDT"'' was presented to the public at the International Forum Engineering Technologies 2012. According to Krasnogorsky Zavod plant, Agat-MDT has the ability to install (for further modernization) in the sight the newly developed domestic UPF format 640×512 by 15 microns, which makes possible in the future to extend the range of target identification at night to 3.5–4.0 km without modifications to the sight.

In 2016, the Krasnogorsk plant finished testing the ''Irbis-K'' night-vision sighting system for the T-80U and T-90, with first deliveries planned for 2017. Completion of the Irbis-K, the first Russian-produced mercury cadmium telluride (MCT) matrix thermal sight, addressed a disadvantage of Russian tanks relative to their Western counterparts. The Irbis-K can identify targets at ranges up to 3,240 meters during day and night.

In 2007, there were about 334 T-90 tanks of various types serving in the Russian Ground Forces' 5th Guards Tank Division, stationed in the Siberian Military District, and seven T-90 tanks assigned to the marines. Since 2008, the Russian army has received 62 tanks annually, suspending orders in 2011.

After the cancellation of the T-95 in 2010, Uralvagonzavod began the OKR Armata (Armament) design study. The study resulted in the Object 148 based on the T-95 (itself based on the Object 187). The Russian Army curtailed T-90 orders beginning in 2012 to prepare for the arrival of the new tank. In July 2021, Industry and Trade Minister Denis Manturov said the tank, designated the T-14 Armata, will enter serial production in 2022.

Deliveries of upgraded T-90M tanks started in April 2020 to the Guards Tank Army of the RF Western Military District. The T-90M ‘Proryv’ (‘Breakthrough’) has received a principally new turret, the 2A46M-5 gun, and a more powerful engine. The Proryv is outfitted with a new multi-channel sighting system that allows employing weapons at any time of day or night and it can exchange data with other vehicles in real time. A new batch was delivered in March 2021. According to Ukrainian intelligence sources, manufacturing of T-90s was slowed because of the effect of International sanctions since the start of the invasion of Ukraine. An article from ''Forbes'' magazine in early October 2023 suggested a rise in T-90M's production based on the increasing amount of T90 losses in Ukraine.

The UK-based International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS) estimates that annual production of T-90M tanks could reach up to 90 units in 2024. Analysis suggests, however, that the majority of these T-90Ms are likely upgrades of older T-90A models rather than newly built tanks. Sources indicate that over 200 T-90Ms have been delivered since the war in Ukraine started. The UK-based ''Military Watch Magazine'' reported in September 2024 that efforts to surge the production rate to well over 1000 per year had fallen far short, with the output remaining uncertain with some reports indicating that over 300 T-90Ms would be delivered throughout the year.

Combat use

Russian service

An early variant of the export-oriented T-90S allegedly saw combat action during the 1999 Chechen invasion of Dagestan instead of being delivered to India. The tank's survivability against rocket-propelled grenades (RPGs) is disputed. Gordon L. Rottman writes that T-90s were "frequently" knocked out by three or four hits from a RPG-7. He adds that Chechens found a way to compromise T-90s fitted with explosive reactive armor: they would fire an RPG-7 from close range (within 50m) to trigger the explosive reactive armor protection, and then re-attack the exposed tank armour underneath with two or more RPG hits, again from close range.

On the other hand, ''Moscow Defense Brief'' gives the example of one T-90 that remained in action despite being hit by seven RPGs. The journal concluded that with regular equipment, the upgraded T-90 seems to be the best protected Russian tank, especially with the implementation of Shtora-1 and Arena defensive systems.

The T-90A was deployed to Syria in 2015 to support the Russian involvement in the Syrian Civil War.

In September 2020, a Russian T-90 was accidentally hit by an anti-tank guided missile (ATGM) during exercises held in Russia's Astrakhan region causing serious damage to the vehicle.

Russo-Ukrainian War

During the war in Donbas stage of the Russo-Ukrainian War in the summer of 2014, elements of the Russian 136th Guards Motor Rifle Brigade equipped with T-90A tanks conducting operations in Luhansk Oblast of Ukraine were identified in social media posts, and locations of their photographs were geolocated by open-source investigators.

During the full-scale Russian invasion of Ukraine beginning in February 2022, by 12 May, a T-90 was reported to have been destroyed by a Swedish Carl Gustaf man-portable anti-tank grenade launcher in Kharkiv.

During this conflict, the T-90 has faced and been destroyed by many types of anti-tank missiles, including modern "top attack" missiles such as the American-produced FGM-148 Javelin and the Anglo-Swedish NLAW. The Arena system has not appeared in Ukraine and it is unclear if the system has met expectations.

In January 2024, in fighting around Stepove, two Bradley Fighting Vehicles (BFV) from the Ukrainian 47th Separate Mechanized Brigade engaged a T-90M. The tank was disabled by the Bradleys, and its crew escaped before a FPV drone destroyed the tank.

In late September 2024, reports backed by images shared on social media showed a destroyed T-90M that lacked Relikt ERA. The ERA bricks had been replaced by "construction bricks".

As of 9 May 2025, the Oryx blog had documented that Russia had lost at least 187 T-90s since the start of the Russian invasion of Ukraine (visually confirmed), including 42 T-90A (of which 29 were destroyed, 3 abandoned, 10 captured), 1 T-90AK (captured and later destroyed), 11 T-90S (9 destroyed, 1 abandoned, 1 captured) and 134 T-90M (80 destroyed, 17 damaged, 30 abandoned, 7 captured).

Syrian service

In early February 2016, Syrian Army forces began using T-90As in combat. A video was leaked on the internet which showed a T-90 survive a direct frontal turret hit by a TOW missile in Aleppo. The Kontakt-5 reactive armor discharged the TOW warhead before impact. Two Syrian Army operated T-90 were captured by HTS militias while ISIS fighters captured a third in November 2017. A rebel operated T-90 was recaptured by Syrian government forces while the second was reportedly destroyed in combat by a T-72. Another 5 Syrian Army operated T-90 tanks were knocked out or heavily damaged and 4 others suffered hits, according to recorded material.

Azerbaijani service

Azerbaijan used their T-90S tanks during the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh conflict. One T-90 was damaged and captured by Armenian forces. At least two were confirmed destroyed in the initial phases of the war, being the first ever proven total loss of the combat vehicle.

Export

India

The T-90S ''Bhishma'' (named after the guardian warrior in the ''Mahabharata'') is a vehicle tailored for Indian service, improving upon the T-90S, and developed with assistance from Russia and France. The tanks are equipped with the French Thales-built Catherine-FC thermal sights. They use Russian Kontakt-5 explosive reactive armour, in addition to the primary armor, which consists of laminated plates and ceramic layers with high-tensile properties. The new welded turrets first developed for the Indian T-90S Bhishma have more advanced armour protection than the early cast turrets.

The later T-90M features the 'Kaktus K-6' bolted explosive reactive armour (ERA) package on its frontal hull and turret-top (the T-90S has 'Kontakt-5' ERA), is fitted with an enhanced environmental control system supplied by Israel's Kinetics Ltd for providing cooled air to the fighting compartment, has additional internal volume for housing the cryogenic cooling systems for new-generation thermal imagers like the THALES-built Catherine-FC thermal imager (operating in the 8–12 micrometre bandwidth).

Orders and deliveries

# In 2001, India purchased 310 T-90S tanks from Russia, of which 124 were delivered complete (42 featured the early cast turrets seen on Russian tanks) and 186 were to be assembled from kits delivered in various stages of completion with an emphasis on shifting production to domestic means. The T-90 was selected because it is a direct development of the T-72 that India already manufactured, simplifying training and maintenance. India opted to acquire the T-90 to counter Pakistani deployment of the Ukrainian-made T-80 tank in 1995–97. These T-90S tanks were made by Uralvagonzavod and the engines were delivered by Chelyabinsk Tractor Plant. The Indian tanks however omit the Shtora-1 passive electronic countermeasure system which was deemed obsolete.
# A follow-on contract, worth US$800 million, was signed in October 2006, for another 330 T-90S ''Bhishma'' MBTs that were to be manufactured in India by Heavy Vehicles Factory at Avadi, Tamil Nadu.
# A third contract, worth $1.23 billion, was signed in December 2007 for 347 upgraded T-90Ms, most to be licence-assembled by HVF. The Army hoped to field a force of over 21 regiments of T-90 tanks and 40 regiments of modified T-72s. The Indian Army began receiving its first T-90M main battle tank in completely knocked-down form from Russia's Nizhny Tagil-based Uralvagonzavod JSC at the end of 2009. The first batch of 10 T-90Ms built under licence was inducted into the Indian Army in August 2009. These vehicles were built at the Heavy Vehicles Factory at Avadi, Tamil Nadu. HVF planned to produce 100 units of the tank per year while India already had 700 units of the tank in service.
# A purchase of 354 new T-90SM tanks for six tank regiments for the China border was being planned in 2012, making India, with a total of nearly 4,500 tanks (T-90 and variants, T-72 and Arjun MBT) in active service, the world's third-largest operator of tanks.
# In November 2019, India announced that Heavy Vehicles Factory would produce 464 T-90 MBTs for 10 tank regiments. On 13 May 2024, Heavy Vehicles Factory delivered the first batch of 10 units of ''Bhishma'' Mk. 3, which is a more advanced variant of T-90, as a part of the 464 tank deal signed in 2019. The rest of 454 tanks will be delivered within five years.

In 2013, India planned to have 21 T-90 tank regiments by 2020, with 45 combat tanks and 17 training and replacement tanks per regiment. In the 2020s, the number of planned tanks was increased to 1,657.

Upgrades

* Commander sight: On 25 February 2022, The Acquisition Wing of the Defence Ministry has signed a contract valued at Rs.1,075 crore with Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL) to retro-modify 957 T-90s with advanced Mid Wave Thermal Image (MWIR), which will replace the existing Image Converter (IC)-based commander sight.
* Active protection system: In 2021, the Indian army was looking to upgrade its T-90 tank fleet with locally built modular Active Protection, with both soft kill and hard kill systems, to update the tanks to modern standards. On 3 February 2025, the Army released a Request for Information (RFI) to identify prospective vendors for the development of an active protection system for the T-90S/SK tank fleet. While explosive reactive armour protects the tanks from shoulder-fired missile, an APS is important for protection from tandem warheads in top-attack mode. The system being offered must feature Soft Kill, Hard Kill and Counter Unmanned Aerial System (C-UAS) measures and without compromising it's existing capabilities. It should be capable of detecting detecting all types of UAS (including loitering UAVs, first person view (FPV), swarm, and Kamikaze drones) as well as all kinds of anti-tank projectiles (like anti-tank guided missiles, rocket-propelled grenades and chemical and kinetic energy munitions). The document stated that the system should not compromise the mobility of the vehicle and be operable in high altitude terrains. The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) has started work on a similar systems in 2024.
* Bhishma Mk. 3 variant: In May 2024, Heavy Vehicles Factory unveiled the Bhishma Mk. 3 variant of T-90. Enhancements included increase in indigenous content and several upgrades. The upgrades included advanced Mid Wave Thermal Image-based sighting systems (8 km range) and Laser Range Finder (LRF; 5 km range) for commanders developed by DRDO and BEL (replacing Image Converter tube-based sight on older versions), a Digital Ballistic Computer to improve ammunition trajectory (derived from that of Arjun MBT), Automatic Target Tracker. It is also expected that the new variant tanks will feature new generation ammunition like FSAPDS Mk2 (originally developed for Arjun MBT), and cannon-launched SAMHO missiles that is under development. Reports also suggest the use of a more efficient and powerful engine. There are plans for further upgradation of the T-90 tanks by including indigenous Active Protection Systems, Loitering Munitions

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