Syria (name)

The name ''Syria'' is latinized from the Greek (). In toponymic typology, the term ''Syria'' is classified among choronyms (proper names of regions and countries). The origin and usage of the term has been the subject of interest, both among ancient writers and modern scholars. In early Hittite, Luwian, Cilician and Greek usage between the 9th century BC and 2nd century BC, the terms () and () were used almost interchangeably, originally specifically referring to Assyria in Upper Mesopotamia.

Etymologically, the name ''Syria'' is linked to ''Assyria'' ( Akkadian ), which was a major ancient Mesopotamian civilization founded in modern-day northern Iraq in the 25th century BC. It expanded to include parts of Southeastern Anatolia and Northeastern Syria by the late Bronze Age and its empire eventually conquered much of Western Asia during the Iron Age, reaching Cyprus to the west, Caucasus to the north, Persia to the east, and Egypt and Arabia to the south. During the Middle Assyrian Empire (1365–1050 BC), Syria (apart from the Assyrian northeast corner) was known as ''Amurru'' ('The Land of the Amorites'). During the Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–605 BC) it was referred to as '' Eber Nari'' and '' Aram''. These designations for modern Syria were continued by the Achaemenid Empire (539–332 BC), while Assyria remained known to the Achaemenids, Lydians and Armenians as ''Assyria''.

Theodor Nöldeke in 1871 was the second to give philological support to the assumption that ''Syria'' and ''Assyria'' have the same etymology, following a suggestion going back to John Selden (1617). Current modern academic opinion strongly favours the connection, which has been reinforced by the discovery of 9th century BC inscriptions referring to Assyria as Syria.

Modern Syria (, since 1961) inherits its name from the Ottoman Syria vilayet (''Vilâyet-i Sûriye''), established in 1865. The choice of the ancient regional name, instead of a more common Ottoman practice of naming provinces according to provincial capitals, was seen as the reflection of a growing historical consciousness among the local intellectuals at the time.

The Classical Arabic name for the region is ( 'The land of Shem', eldest son of Noah; , from 'left hand'; 'northern').

Etymology

The majority of modern scholars strongly support the already dominant position that ''Syrian'' and ''Syriac'' indeed derive from ''Assyrian'', and the recent (1997) discovery of the bilingual Çineköy inscription from the 8th century BCE, written in the Luwian and Phoenician languages, seems to clearly confirm that ''Syria'' is ultimately derived from the Assyrian term ''Aššūrāyu''.

Noting the scholarly consensus on questions related to interpretation of the terms ''Syria'' and ''Assyria'' in the Çineköy inscription, some researchers have also analyzed some similar terms that appear in other contemporary inscriptions, suggesting some additional interpretations.

The question was addressed from the Early Classical period through to the Renaissance era by the likes of Herodotus, Strabo, Justinus, Michael the Syrian and John Selden, with each of these stating that ''Syrian''/''Syriac'' was synonymous with and derivative of ''Assyrian''. Acknowledgments were being made as early as the 5th century BC in the Hellenistic world that the Indo-European term ''Syrian'' was derived from the much earlier ''Assyrian''.

Some 19th-century historians such as Ernest Renan had dismissed the etymological identity of the two toponyms."Syria is not but a contraction of Assyria or Assyrian; this according to the Greek pronunciation. The Greeks applied this name to all of Asia Minor." cited after Sa Grandeur Mgr. David, Archevêque Syrien De Damas, ''Grammair De La Langue Araméenne Selon Les Deux Dialects Syriaque Et Chaldaique'' Vol. 1,, (Imprimerie Des Péres Dominicains, Mossoul, 1896), 12. Various alternatives had been suggested, including derivation from ''Subartu'' (a term which most modern scholars in fact accept is itself an early name for Assyria, which was located in northern Mesopotamia), the Hurrian toponym , or (the Phoenician name of Tyre). Northern Syria is known as (, referring to the Hurrian occupants prior to the Aramaean invasion) in the Amarna Period of Egypt, and as () in Biblical Hebrew. J. A. Tvedtnes had suggested that the Greek ''Suria'' is loaned from Coptic, and is due to a regular Coptic development of to . In this case, the name would derive directly from that of the language isolate-speaking Hurrians, and be unrelated to the name ''Aššur''. Tvedtnes' explanation was rejected as highly unlikely by Frye in 1992.

Various theories have been advanced as to the etymological connections between the two terms. Some scholars suggest that the term ''Assyria'' included a definite article, similar to the function of the Arabic language "Al-".A New Classical Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography, Mythology and Geography, Sir William Smith, Charles Anthon, Harper & Brothers, 1862
"Even when the name of Syria is used in its ordinary narrower sense, it is often confounded with Assyria, which only differs from Syria by having the definite article prefixed." Theodor Nöldeke in 1871 gave philological support to the assumption that ''Syria'' and ''Assyria'' have the same etymology, a suggestion going back to John Selden (1617) rooted in his own Hebrew tradition about the descent of Assyrians from Jokshan. Majority and mainstream current academic opinion strongly favours that ''Syria'' originates from ''Assyria''. In a hieroglyphic Luwian and Phoenician bilingual monumental inscription found in Çineköy, Turkey, (the Çineköy inscription) belonging to Urikki, vassal king of Que (i.e. Cilicia), dating to the eighth century BC, reference is made to the relationship between his kingdom and his Assyrian overlords. The Luwian inscription reads whereas the Phoenician translation reads , i.e. "Assur", and also mentions "Assyrians", which according to Rollinger "settles the problem once and for all".

According to a different hypothesis, the name ''Syria'' might be derived from ( ''Širyôn'', meaning 'breastplate'), the name that the Phoenicians (especially Sidonians) gave to Mount Hermon, mentioned in an Ugaritic poem about Baal and Anath:

History

Historical use of the term ''Syria'' can be divided into three periods. The first period, attested from the 8th century BCE, reflects the original Luwian and Cilician use of the term ''Syria'' as a clear synonym for ''Assyria'', in reference to the empire of Assyria, rather than modern Syria (the historically Assyrian northeast aside) which was known as Aramea and Eber-Nari at that time, terms never applied to Assyria itself. Such use was recorded in the bilingual (Luwian-Phoenician) Çineköy inscription.

Through contacts with Luwians, Cilicians and Phoenicians, ancient Greeks also learned both variants (Syria/Assyria), used as synonyms, but later started to introduce some distinctions, thus marking the beginning of the second (transitional) period, attested by the works of Greek historian Herodotus (5th century BCE). Some instances in his writings reflect the original (synonymous) use of Syrian and Assyrian designations, when used for the Assyrian people in Mesopotamia and Anatolia. Herodotus explicitly stated that those called ''Syrians'' by the Greeks were called ''Assyrians'' by the non-Greeks,(Pipes 1992), s:History of Herodotus/Book 7
On the other side, he stated that Syrians were called Cappadocians, by Persians.(Pipes 1992), s:History of Herodotus/Book 7
Herodotus also introduced some distinctions regarding the territorial scope of the terms ''Syria'' and ''Assyria''. Randolph Helm emphasized that Herodotus never applied the term ''Syria'' to the Mesopotamian and Anatolian region of Assyria, which he always called ''Assyria''.

The third period was marked by definite territorialization of the term ''Syria'', as distinct from ''Assyria''. That process was finalized already during the Seleucid era (312–64 BCE), when Hellenistic (Greek) notions were applied in the region, and specific terms like Coele-Syria were introduced, corresponding to western regions (ancient Aram), unrelated to ancient Assyria which was still extant as a geopolitical entity in Mesopotamia, southeastern Anatolia and northeastern Syria.

Such distinctions were later inherited by the Romans, who created the province of Syria, for regions western of Euphrates, while Assyria represented a distinctive geographical term, related to Assyrian-inhabited regions in northern and eastern Mesopotamia and south east Anatolia. In the Roman Empire, ''Syria'' in its broadest sense referred to lands situated between Asia Minor and Egypt, i.e. the western Levant, while ''Assyria'' referred to Athura, part of the Persian Empire, and only very briefly came under Roman control (116–118 AD, marking the historical peak of Roman expansion), where it was administered as .

In 1864, the Ottoman Vilayet Law was promulgated to form the Syria Vilayet. The new provincial law was implemented in Damascus in 1865, and the reformed province was named ''Suriyya'' or ''Suriye'', reflecting a growing historical consciousness among the local intellectuals.

See also

Notes

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{{Asia topic, Name of

Syria
History of Syria
Syria (region)