Swaram A Cappella

Swara () or svara is an Indian classical music term that connotes simultaneously a breath, a vowel, a note, the sound of a musical note corresponding to its name, and the successive steps of the octave, or ''saptanka''. More comprehensively, it is the ancient Indian concept of the complete dimension of musical pitch. At its most basic comparison to western music, a ''swara'' is, essentially, a "note" of a given scale. However, that is but a loose interpretation of the word, as a ''swara'' is identified as both a musical note and tone; a "tone" is a precise substitute for sur, relating to "tunefulness". Traditionally, Indian musicians have just seven ''swara''s/notes with short names: sa, re, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, which they collectively refer to as ''saptank'' or ''saptaka''. This is one of the reasons why ''swara'' is considered a symbolic expression for the number seven. In another loose comparison to western music, ''saptak'' (as an octave or scale) may be interpreted as solfège, e.g. the notes of a scale as Do, Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La, Ti (and Do).Saptak can named as heptave because it contains seven notes.

Origins and history

Etymology

The word ''svara'' (Sanskrit: स्वर) is derived from the root ''svr'' which means "to sound". To be precise, the ''svara'' is defined in the Sanskrit ''nirukta'' system as:
*''svaryate iti svaraḥ'' (स्वर्यते इति स्वरः, does breathing, shines, makes sound),
*''svayam rājate iti svaraḥ'' (स्वयं राजते इति स्वरः, appears on its own) and
*''sva rañjayati iti svaraḥ'' (स्व रञ्जयति इति स्वरः, that which colours itself in terms of appealing sound).

The Kannada word ''svara'' and Tamil alphabet or letter ''suram'' do not represent a sound, but rather more generally the place of articulation (PoA) (பிறப்பிடம்), where one generates a sound, and the sounds made there can vary in pitch.

In the ''Veda''s

The word is found in the Vedic literature, particularly the Samaveda, where it means accent and tone, or a musical note, depending on the context. The discussion there focusses on three accent pitch or levels: ''svarita'' (sounded, circumflex normal), ''udatta'' (high, raised) and ''anudatta'' (low, not raised). However, scholars question whether the singing of hymns and chants were always limited to three tones during the Vedic era.

In the general sense ''svara'' means tone, and applies to chanting and singing. The basic svaras of Vedic chanting are ''udatta'', ''anudatta'' and ''svarita''. Vedic music has ''madhyama'' or ''ma'' as principal note so that tonal movement is possible towards lower and higher pitches, thus ''ma'' is taken for granted as fixed in any tonal music (''madhyama avilopi'', मध्यम अविलोपी).

One-''svara'' Vedic singing is called ārcika chanting, e.g. in chanting the following texts on one note:
*aum aum aum / om om om
*hari om tatsat
*shivoham shivoham
*raam raam raam raam
*raadhe raadhe
*siyaa-raam siyaa-raam
or the like. Two-''svara'' Vedic singing is called gāthika chanting, e.g. in chanting the following text on two notes:

The musical octave is said to have evolved from the elaborate and elongated chants of the ''Samaveda'', based on these basic svaras. ''Siksha'' is the subject that deals with phonetics and pronunciation. ''Naradiya Siksha'' elaborates the nature of svaras, both Vedic chants and the octave.

In the ''Upaniṣad''s

The word also appears in the Upanishads. For example, it appears in '' Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana'' section 111.33, where the cyclic rise and setting of sun and world, is referred to as "the music of spheres", and the sun is stated to be "humming the wheel of the world". According to Ananda Coomaraswamy, the roots "''svar''", meaning "to shine" (whence "''surya''" or sun), and "''svr''", meaning "to sound or resound" (whence "''svara''", “musical note”) and also in some contexts "to shine", are all related in the ancient Indian imagination.

In ''Śāstra'' literature

The concept of a ''svara'' is found in Chapter 28 of the text '' Nāṭya Śāstra'', estimated to have been completed between 200 BCE to 200 CE. It names the unit of tonal measurement or audible unit the ''śruti'', with verse 28.21 introducing the musical scale as follows:

This text contains the modern names:

These seven svaras are shared by both major ''raga'' systems of Indian classical music, that is the North Indian (Hindustani) and South Indian (Carnatic).

Seven ''svara''s and solfège (''sargam'')

''Sapta svara'', also called ''sapta swara'' or ''sapta sur'', refers to the seven distinct notes of the octave or the seven successive ''svara''s of a ''saptak''. The ''sapta svara'' can be collectively referred to as the ''sargam'' (which is an acronym of the consonants of the first four ''svara''s). ''Sargam'' is the Indian equivalent to solfège, a technique for the teaching of sight-singing. As in Western moveable-Do solfège, the ''svara'' Sa is the tonic of a piece or scale. The seven ''svara''s of the ''saptak'' are the fundamentals of heptatonic scales or ''melakarta raga''s and ''thaat''s in Carnatic and Hindustani classical music.

The seven ''svaras'' are ''śaḍja'' (षड्ज), ''r̥ṣabha'' (ऋषभ), ''gāndhāra'' (गान्धार), ''madhyama'' (मध्यम), ''pañcama'' (पञ्चम), ''dhaivata'' (धैवत) and ''niṣāda'' (निषाद). The ''svara''s of the ''sargam'' are often learnt in abbreviated form: ''sā, ri'' ( Carnatic) or ''re'' ( Hindustani), ''ga, ma, pa, dha, ni''. Of these, the first ''svara'' that is ''"sa"'', and the fifth svara that is ''"pa"'', are considered anchors (''achal svara''s) that are unalterable, while the remaining have flavours (' and '' svara''s) that differs between the two major systems.

Interpretation

North Indian Hindustani music has fixed names of a relative pitches, but South Indian Carnatic music keeps on making interchanges of the names of pitches in case of ri-ga and dha-ni whenever required. Swaras appear in successive steps in an octave. More comprehensively, svara-graam (scale) is the practical concept of Indian music comprising seven + five= twelve most useful musical pitches. Sage Matanga made a very important statement in his Brihaddeshi some 1500 years ago that:
i.e. Shadaj, Rishabh, Gandhar, ... (and their utterance) are not the real svaras but their pronunciation in the form of aa-kar, i-kaar, u-kaar ... are the real form of the svaras.

It is said that ''Shadaj'' is the basic ''svara'' from which all the other 6 ''svara''s are produced. When we break the word ''Shadaj'' then we get, Shad- And -Ja. ''Shad'' is 6 and ''ja'' is 'giving birth' in Indian languages. So basically the translation is :
षड् - 6, ज -जन्म . Therefore, it collectively means giving birth to the other 6 notes of the music.

The absolute frequencies for all ''svara''s are variable, and are determined relative to the ''saptak'' or octave. E.g. given Sa 240 Hz, Re 270 Hz, Ga 288 Hz, Ma 320 Hz, Pa 360 Hz, Dha 405 Hz, and Ni 432 Hz, then the Sa after the Ni of 432 Hz has a frequency of 480 Hz i.e. double that of the lower octave Sa, and similarly all the other 6 svaras. Considering the Sa of the Madhya Saptak then frequencies of the other svaras will be,
Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni
Mandra Saptak: 120 Hz, 135 Hz, 144 Hz, 160 Hz, 180 Hz, 202.5 Hz, 216 Hz.}
Madhya Saptak: 240 Hz, 270 Hz, 288 Hz, 320 Hz, 360 Hz, 405 Hz, 432 Hz.}
Taara Saptak: 480 Hz, 540 Hz, 576 Hz, 640 Hz, 720 Hz, 810 Hz, 864 Hz.}

All the other ''svara''s except ''Shadaj'' (Sa) and ''Pancham'' (Pa) can be ' or '' svara''s but Sa and Pa are always ''shuddha svara''s. And hence ''svara''s Sa and Pa are called achal svaras, since these ''svara''s don't move from their original position. ''Svara''s Ra, Ga, Ma, Dha, Ni are called chal svaras, since these ''svara''s move from their original position.
Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha, Ni - Shuddha Svaras
Re, Ga, Dha, Ni - Komal Svaras
Ma - Svaras

Talking about Shrutis of these Sapta Svaras,
Sa, Ma and Pa have four Shrutis, respectively
Re and Dha have three Shrutis, respectively
Ga and Ni have two Shrutis, respectively
And these all Shrutis add up to 22 Shrutis in total.

Relationship to ''śruti''

The ''svara'' differs slightly from the ''śruti'' concept in Indian music. Both the ''svara'' and the ''śruti'' are but the sounds of music. According to the music scholars of the distant past, the ''śruti'' is generally understood as a microtone besides ''veda'' and an ear. In the context of advanced music, a ''śruti'' is the smallest gradation of pitch that a human ear can detect and a singer or instrument can produce. There are 22 ''śruti'' or microtones in a ''saptaka'' of Hindustani music but Carnatic music assumes 24 ''śruti''. A ''svara'' is a selected pitch from 22 ''śruti''s, using several of such ''svara''s a musician constructs scales, melodies and ''raga''s. In the presence of a drone-sound of perfectly tuned Tanpuras, an ideal ''svara'' sounds sweet and appealing to human ear but particularly some 10 ''śruti''s of the ''saptaka'' sound out of pitch (besuraa) when compared to the very drone. A tuneful and pleasing tone of the ''svara'' is located at a fixed interval but there is no fixed interval defined for two consecutive ''śruti''s anywhere that can safely and scientifically be used throughout with respect to a perfect drone sound.

The ancient Sanskrit text ''Natya Shastra'' by Bharata identifies and discusses twenty two ''shruti'' and seven shuddha and two vikrita ''svara''. The Natya Shastra mentions that in Shadaj graama, the svara pairs saa-ma and saa-pa are samvaadi svaras (consonant pair) and are located at the interval of 9 and 13 shruti respectively. Similarly, svara pairs re-dha and ga-ni are samvaadi svara too. Without giving any example of 'a standard measure' or 'equal interval' between two successive shrutis, Bharata declared that saa, ma or pa shall have an interval of 4 shrutis measured from the pitch of the preceding svara, re or dha shall have an interval of 3 shrutis measured from the pitch of the preceding svara and ga or ni shall have an interval of 2 shrutis measured from the pitch of the preceding svara respectively. The following quote explains it all:
Bharata also makes some unscientific and unacceptable observations ignoring practically proven truths like samvaad (samvaada/ संवाद) or consonance of ma-ni, re-dha, re-pa and ga-ni as each of these svara pairs do not have equal number of shrutis to establish samvaad. In reality, the above-mentioned pairs DO create samvaad or consonances which Bharata did not recognize for unknown reasons. None of the musicologists give in writing the 'practical basis' or technique of ascertaining the ideal tonal gap between the note pairs like saa-re, re-ga, ga-ma, ma-pa, pa-dha, dha-ni, ni-saa* (taar saa) until Sangeet Paarijat of Ahobal (c. 1650). The ''svara'' studies in ancient Sanskrit texts include the musical gamut and its tuning, categories of melodic models and the ''raga'' compositions.

Perhaps the greats like Bharata, Sage Matanga and Shaarnga-deva did not know the secret of tuneful tones (up to acceptable level of normal human ear, on the basis of taanpuraa drone) for they do not mention use of drone sound for any of the musical purposes. Most of the practicing musicians knew very well that all the tuneful tones of seven notes could be discovered with the help of the theory of samvaad, in which saa-saa* (*means upper octave), saa-ma and saa-pa play the most crucial role.

Notation and practice

As per the widely used Bhatkhande Svara Lipi (Bhakthande's Swar Notation script), a dot above a letter (svara symbol) indicates that the note is sung one ''saptak'' (octave) higher, and a dot below indicates one saptak lower. notes are indicated by an underscore, and the Ma has a line on top which can be vertical or horizontal. (Or, if a note with the same name - Sa, for example - is an octave higher than the note represented by S, an apostrophe is placed to the right: S'. If it is an octave lower, the apostrophe is placed to the left: 'S. Apostrophes can be added as necessary to indicate the octave: for example, ``g would be the note komal Ga in the octave two octaves below that which begins on the note S (that is, two octaves below g).) In other words, the basic rule is that the number of dots or apostrophes above or below the svara symbol means the number of times dots or apostrophes, respectively, above or below the corresponding svara in madhya saptak (middle octave).

The basic mode of reference in the Hindustani system is that which is equivalent to the Western Ionian mode or major scale (called '' Bilaval thaat'' in Hindustani music, ''Sankarabharanam'' in '' Carnatic''). In the Carnatic system however, the beginner exercises are sung in the raga Mayamalavagowla, which corresponds to the Western Double harmonic scale. The reason for this being the symmetry of the scale, with the first half mirroring the second half, and the existence of all the important inrervals (half, whole and double note). This is something that is absent in the major scale, which only consists of half and whole notes. In any seven-tone mode (starting with S), R, G, D, and N can be natural (', lit. 'pure') or flat (', 'soft') but never sharp, and the M can be natural or sharp (') but never flat, making twelve notes as in the Western chromatic scale. If a svara is not natural ('), a line below a letter indicates that it is flat (') and an acute accent above indicates that it is sharp (', 'intense'). Sa and Pa are immovable (once Sa is selected), forming a just perfect fifth.

In some notation systems, the distinction is made with capital and lowercase letters. When abbreviating these tones, the form of the note which is relatively ''lower'' in pitch always uses a ''lowercase'' letter, while the form which is ''higher'' in pitch uses an ''uppercase'' letter. So Re/Ri uses the letter r and Re/Ri, the letter R, but Ma uses m because it has a raised form - Ma - which uses the letter M. Sa and Pa are always abbreviated as S and P, respectively, since they cannot be altered.

''Svara''s in Carnatic music

The ''svara''s in Carnatic music are slightly different in the twelve-note system. Each ''svara'' is either '' prakr̥ti'' (invariant) or ''vikr̥ti'' (variable). ''Ṣaḍjam'' and ''Pañcamam'' are ''prakr̥ti svara''s, whilst ''R̥ṣabham'', ''Gāndhāram'', ''Mādhyamam'', ''Dhaivatam'' and ''Niṣādam'' are ''vikr̥ti svara''s. Ma has two variants, and each of Ri, Ga, Dha and Ni has three variants. The mnemonic syllables for each ''vikṛti svara'' use the vowels "a", "i" and "u" successively from lowest to highest. For example, ''r̥ṣabham'' has the three ascending variants "ra", "ri" and "ru", being respectively 1, 2 and 3 semitones above the tonic note, ''ṣaḍjam''.

As you can see above, ''Catuśruti Ṛṣabham'' and ''Śuddha Gāndhāram'' share the same pitch (3rd key/position). Hence if C is chosen as ''Ṣaḍjam'', D would be both ''Catuśruti R̥ṣabham'' and ''Śuddha Gāndhāram''. Hence they will not occur in same rāgam together. Similarly for the two svaras each at pitch positions 4, 10 and 11.

Cultural, spiritual, and religious symbolism

* Each ''svara'' is associated with the sound produced by a particular animal or a bird, like,
** ''Sa'' is said to be sourced from the cry of a peacock,
** ''Ri'' is said to be sourced from the lowing of a bull,
** ''Ga'' is said to be sourced from the bleating of a goat,
** ''Ma'' is said to be sourced from call of the heron,
** ''Pa'' is said to be sourced from call of the cuckoo,
** ''Dha'' is said to be sourced from the neighing of the horse,
** ''Ni'' is said to be sourced from the trumpeting of the elephant.

So each ''svara'' is said to be sourced from the sound produced by an animal or a bird.

* Each ''svara'' is also associated with a classical planet:
** Sa – Mercury,
** Re – Mars,
** Ga – Sun,
** Ma – Moon,
** Pa - Saturn,
** Dha – Jupiter,
** Ni - Venus.
* Each ''svara'' is also associated with a colour:
** Sa – Green,
** Re – Red,
** Ga – Golden,
** Ma – White,
** Pa - Blue or Black,
** Dha – Yellow,
** Ni - Multi coloured.
*Each ''svara'' is also associated with the 7 Chakras in the body:
** Sa - Muladhara
** Re - Svadisthana
** Ga - Manipura
** Ma - Anahata
** Pa - Vishuddhi
** Dha - Ajna
** Ni - Sahasrara

See also

* Hindustani classical music
* Indian classical dance
* Carnatic music
* Ancient Tamil music
* Gamak
* Raga

References

Bibliography

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Further reading

* Mathieu, W. A. (1997). ''Harmonic Experience: Tonal Harmony from Its Natural Origins to Its Modern Expression''. Inner Traditions Intl Ltd. . An auto didactic ear-training and sight-singing book that uses singing sargam syllables over a drone in a just intonation system based on perfect fifths and major thirds.

External links

North India Sargam Notation Systemwww.soundofindia.com Article on vivadi svaras, by Haresh Bakshi

{{Musical notation

Indian classical music
Musical notation
Musical scales
Hindustani music terminology
Carnatic music terminology