Sultan (; ', ) is a

position Position often refers to: * Position (geometry), the spatial location (rather than orientation) of an entity * Position, a job or occupation Position may also refer to: Games and recreation * Position (poker), location relative to the dealer * ...

with several historical meanings. Originally, it was an Arabic

abstract noun In grammar, a noun is a word that represents a concrete or abstract thing, like living creatures, places, actions, qualities, states of existence, and ideas. A noun may serve as an object or subject within a phrase, clause, or sentence.Example ...

meaning "strength", "authority", "rulership", derived from the

verbal noun Historically, grammarians have described a verbal noun or gerundial noun as a verb form that functions as a noun. An example of a verbal noun in English is 'sacking' as in the sentence "The ''sacking'' of the city was an epochal event" (wherein ...

', meaning "authority" or "power". Later, it came to be used as the title of certain rulers who claimed almost full sovereignty (i.e., not having dependence on any higher ruler) without claiming the overall

caliphate A caliphate ( ) is an institution or public office under the leadership of an Islamic steward with Khalifa, the title of caliph (; , ), a person considered a political–religious successor to the Islamic prophet Muhammad and a leader of ...

, or to refer to a powerful

governor A governor is an politician, administrative leader and head of a polity or Region#Political regions, political region, in some cases, such as governor-general, governors-general, as the head of a state's official representative. Depending on the ...

of a province within the caliphate. The adjectival form of the word is "sultanic", and the

state State most commonly refers to: * State (polity), a centralized political organization that regulates law and society within a territory **Sovereign state, a sovereign polity in international law, commonly referred to as a country **Nation state, a ...

and territories ruled by a sultan, as well as his office, are referred to as a sultanate ( '). The term is distinct from king ( '), though both refer to a sovereign ruler. The use of "sultan" is restricted to Muslim countries, where the title carries religious significance, contrasting the more secular ''king'', which is used in both Muslim and non-Muslim countries.

Brunei Brunei, officially Brunei Darussalam, is a country in Southeast Asia, situated on the northern coast of the island of Borneo. Apart from its coastline on the South China Sea, it is completely surrounded by the Malaysian state of Sarawak, with ...

Malaysia Malaysia is a country in Southeast Asia. Featuring the Tanjung Piai, southernmost point of continental Eurasia, it is a federation, federal constitutional monarchy consisting of States and federal territories of Malaysia, 13 states and thre ...

and

Oman Oman, officially the Sultanate of Oman, is a country located on the southeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula in West Asia and the Middle East. It shares land borders with Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen. Oman’s coastline ...

are the only

sovereign state A sovereign state is a State (polity), state that has the highest authority over a territory. It is commonly understood that Sovereignty#Sovereignty and independence, a sovereign state is independent. When referring to a specific polity, the ter ...

s which retain the title "sultan" for their monarchs. In recent years, the title has been gradually replaced by "king" by contemporary hereditary rulers who wish to emphasize their secular authority under the rule of law. A notable example is

Morocco Morocco, officially the Kingdom of Morocco, is a country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It has coastlines on the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and has land borders with Algeria to Algeria–Morocc ...

, whose monarch changed his title from sultan to king in 1957.

History of the term

The word derives from the Arabic and Semitic root ''salaṭa'' "to be hard, strong". The noun ''sulṭān'' initially designated a kind of moral authority or spiritual power (as opposed to political power), and it is used in this sense several times in the

Qur'an The Quran, also romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a revelation directly from God ('' Allāh''). It is organized in 114 chapters (, ) which consist of individual verses ('). Besides ...

. In the early Muslim world, ultimate power and authority was theoretically held by the caliph, who was considered the leader of the caliphate. The increasing political fragmentation of the Muslim world after the 8th century, however, challenged this consensus. Local governors with administrative authority held the title of ''amīr'' (, traditionally "commander" or "

emir Emir (; ' (), also Romanization of Arabic, transliterated as amir, is a word of Arabic language, Arabic origin that can refer to a male monarch, aristocratic, aristocrat, holder of high-ranking military or political office, or other person po ...

", later also "prince") and were appointed by the caliph, but in the 9th century some of these became '' de facto'' independent rulers who founded their own dynasties, such as the

Aghlabids The Aghlabid dynasty () was an Arab dynasty centered in Ifriqiya (roughly present-day Tunisia) from 800 to 909 that conquered parts of Sicily, Southern Italy, and possibly Sardinia, nominally as vassals of the Abbasid Caliphate. The Aghlabids ...

and

Tulunids The Tulunid State, also known as the Tulunid Emirate or The State of Banu Tulun, and popularly referred to as the Tulunids () was a Mamluk dynasty of Turkic peoples, Turkic origin who was the first independent dynasty to rule Egypt in the Middle ...

. Towards the late 10th century, the term "sultan" begins to be used to denote an individual ruler with practically sovereign authority, although the early evolution of the term is complicated and difficult to establish. The first major figure to clearly grant himself this title was the

Ghaznavid The Ghaznavid dynasty ( ''Ġaznaviyān'') was a Persianate Muslim dynasty of Turkic ''mamluk'' origin. It ruled the Ghaznavid Empire or the Empire of Ghazni from 977 to 1186, which at its greatest extent, extended from the Oxus to the Indus Va ...

ruler

Mahmud Mahmud is a transliteration of the male Arabic given name (), common in most parts of the Islamic world. It comes from the Arabic triconsonantal root Ḥ-M-D, meaning ''praise'', along with ''Muhammad''. Given name Mahmood * Mahmood Ali (1928 ...

(r. 998–1030 CE) who controlled an empire over present-day

Afghanistan Afghanistan, officially the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Central Asia and South Asia. It is bordered by Pakistan to the Durand Line, east and south, Iran to the Afghanistan–Iran borde ...

and the surrounding region. Soon after, the

Great Seljuks The Seljuk Empire, or the Great Seljuk Empire, was a high medieval, culturally Turco-Persian, Sunni Muslim empire, established and ruled by the Qïnïq branch of Oghuz Turks. The empire spanned a total area of from Anatolia and the Levant in t ...

adopted this title after defeating the Ghaznavid Empire and taking control of an even larger territory which included

Baghdad Baghdad ( or ; , ) is the capital and List of largest cities of Iraq, largest city of Iraq, located along the Tigris in the central part of the country. With a population exceeding 7 million, it ranks among the List of largest cities in the A ...

, the capital of the

Abbasid caliphs The Abbasid caliphs were the holders of the Islamic title of caliph who were members of the Abbasid dynasty, a branch of the Quraysh tribe descended from the uncle of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, Al-Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib. The family came ...

. The early Seljuk leader

Tughril Bey Abu Talib Muhammad Tughril ibn Mika'il (), better known as Tughril (; also spelled Toghril / Tughrul), was a Turkoman"The defeat in August 1071 of the Byzantine emperor Romanos Diogenes by the Turkomans at the battle of Malazgirt (Manzikert) is ...

was the first leader to adopt the epithet "sultan" on his

coin A coin is a small object, usually round and flat, used primarily as a medium of exchange or legal tender. They are standardized in weight, and produced in large quantities at a mint in order to facilitate trade. They are most often issued by ...

age. While the Seljuks acknowledged the caliphs in Baghdad formally as the universal leader of the

Muslim community ' (; ) is an Arabic word meaning Muslim identity, nation, religious community, or the concept of a Commonwealth of the Muslim Believers ( '). It is a synonym for ' (, lit. 'the Islamic nation'); it is commonly used to mean the collective comm ...

, their own political power clearly overshadowed the latter. This led to various Muslim scholars – notably

Al-Juwayni Dhia' ul-Dīn 'Abd al-Malik ibn Yūsuf al-Juwaynī al-Shafi'ī (, 17 February 102820 August 1085; 419–478 AH) was a Persian Sunni scholar famous for being the foremost leading jurisconsult, legal theoretician and Islamic theologian of his ...

and

Al-Ghazali Al-Ghazali ( – 19 December 1111), archaically Latinized as Algazelus, was a Shafi'i Sunni Muslim scholar and polymath. He is known as one of the most prominent and influential jurisconsults, legal theoreticians, muftis, philosophers, the ...

– attempting to develop theoretical justifications for the political authority of the Seljuk sultans within the framework of the formal supreme authority of the recognized caliphs. In general, the theories maintained that all legitimate authority derived from the caliph, but that it was delegated to sovereign rulers whom the caliph recognized. Al-Ghazali, for example, argued that while the caliph was the guarantor of Islamic law (''

shari'a Sharia, Sharī'ah, Shari'a, or Shariah () is a body of religious law that forms a part of the Islamic tradition based on Islamic holy books, scriptures of Islam, particularly the Quran, Qur'an and hadith. In Islamic terminology ''sharīʿah'' ...

''), coercive power was required to enforce the law in practice and the leader who exercised that power directly was the sultan. The position of sultan continued to grow in importance during the period of the

crusades The Crusades were a series of religious wars initiated, supported, and at times directed by the Papacy during the Middle Ages. The most prominent of these were the campaigns to the Holy Land aimed at reclaiming Jerusalem and its surrounding t ...

, when leaders who held the title of "sultan" (such as Salah ad-Din and the

Ayyubid dynasty The Ayyubid dynasty (), also known as the Ayyubid Sultanate, was the founding dynasty of the medieval Sultan of Egypt, Sultanate of Egypt established by Saladin in 1171, following his abolition of the Fatimid Caliphate, Fatimid Caliphate of Egyp ...

) led the confrontation against the

crusader states The Crusader states, or Outremer, were four Catholic polities established in the Levant region and southeastern Anatolia from 1098 to 1291. Following the principles of feudalism, the foundation for these polities was laid by the First Crusade ...

in the

Levant The Levant ( ) is the subregion that borders the Eastern Mediterranean, Eastern Mediterranean sea to the west, and forms the core of West Asia and the political term, Middle East, ''Middle East''. In its narrowest sense, which is in use toda ...

. Views about the office of the sultan further developed during the crisis that followed the destruction of Baghdad by the

Mongols Mongols are an East Asian ethnic group native to Mongolia, China ( Inner Mongolia and other 11 autonomous territories), as well as the republics of Buryatia and Kalmykia in Russia. The Mongols are the principal member of the large family o ...

in 1258, which eliminated the remnants of Abbasid political power. Henceforth, the surviving descendants of the Abbasid caliphs lived in

Cairo Cairo ( ; , ) is the Capital city, capital and largest city of Egypt and the Cairo Governorate, being home to more than 10 million people. It is also part of the List of urban agglomerations in Africa, largest urban agglomeration in Africa, L ...

under the protection of the

Mamluks Mamluk or Mamaluk (; (singular), , ''mamālīk'' (plural); translated as "one who is owned", meaning "slave") were non-Arab, ethnically diverse (mostly Turkic, Caucasian, Eastern and Southeastern European) enslaved mercenaries, slave-sold ...

and were still nominally recognized by the latter. However, from this time on they effectively had no authority and were not universally recognized across the Sunni Muslim world. As protectors of the line of the Abbasid caliphs, the Mamluks recognized themselves as sultans and the Muslim scholar Khalil al-Zahiri argued that only they could hold that title. Nonetheless, in practice, many Muslim rulers of this period were now using the title as well. Mongol rulers (who had since converted to Islam) and other Turkish rulers were among those who did so. The position of sultan and caliph began to blend together in the 16th century when the

Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire (), also called the Turkish Empire, was an empire, imperial realm that controlled much of Southeast Europe, West Asia, and North Africa from the 14th to early 20th centuries; it also controlled parts of southeastern Centr ...

conquered the Mamluk Empire and became the indisputable leading Sunni Muslim power across most of the

Middle East The Middle East (term originally coined in English language) is a geopolitical region encompassing the Arabian Peninsula, the Levant, Turkey, Egypt, Iran, and Iraq. The term came into widespread usage by the United Kingdom and western Eur ...

North Africa North Africa (sometimes Northern Africa) is a region encompassing the northern portion of the African continent. There is no singularly accepted scope for the region. However, it is sometimes defined as stretching from the Atlantic shores of t ...

, and

Eastern Europe Eastern Europe is a subregion of the Europe, European continent. As a largely ambiguous term, it has a wide range of geopolitical, geographical, ethnic, cultural and socio-economic connotations. Its eastern boundary is marked by the Ural Mountain ...

. The 16th-century Ottoman scholar and jurist, Ebüssuûd Mehmet Efendi, recognized the

Ottoman sultan The sultans of the Ottoman Empire (), who were all members of the Ottoman dynasty (House of Osman), ruled over the Boundaries between the continents, transcontinental empire from its perceived inception in 1299 to Dissolution of the Ottoman Em ...

(

Suleiman the Magnificent Suleiman I (; , ; 6 November 14946 September 1566), commonly known as Suleiman the Magnificent in the Western world and as Suleiman the Lawgiver () in his own realm, was the List of sultans of the Ottoman Empire, Ottoman sultan between 1520 a ...

at the time) as the caliph and universal leader of all Muslims. This conflation of sultan and caliph became more clearly emphasized in the 19th century during the Ottoman Empire's territorial decline, when Ottoman authorities sought to cast the sultan as the leader of the entire Muslim community in the face of European (

Christian A Christian () is a person who follows or adheres to Christianity, a Monotheism, monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus in Christianity, Jesus Christ. Christians form the largest religious community in the wo ...

) colonial expansion. As part of this narrative, it was claimed that when Sultan

Selim I Selim I (; ; 10 October 1470 – 22 September 1520), known as Selim the Grim or Selim the Resolute (), was the List of sultans of the Ottoman Empire, sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1512 to 1520. Despite lasting only eight years, his reign is ...

captured Cairo in 1517, the last descendant of the Abbasids in Cairo formally passed on the position of caliph to him. This combination thus elevated the sultan's religious or spiritual authority, in addition to his formal political authority. During this later period, the title of sultan was still used outside the Ottoman Empire as well, as with the examples of the

Somali aristocrats This is a list of Somali aristocratic and court titles that were historically used by the Somali people's various sultanates, Realm, kingdoms and empires. Also included are the honorifics reserved for Islamic notables as well as traditional leader ...

, Malay nobles and the

sultans of Morocco This is a list of rulers of Morocco since 789. The common and formal titles of these rulers has varied, depending on the time period. Since 1957, the designation King has been used. The present King of Morocco is Mohammed VI of the Alawi dynast ...

(such as the

Alaouite dynasty The Alawi dynasty () – also rendered in English as Alaouite, Alawid, or Alawite – is the current Moroccan royal family and reigning dynasty. They are an Arab Sharifian dynasty and claim descent from the Islamic prophet Muhammad through his ...

founded in the 17th century). It was, however, not used as a sovereign title by

Shi'a Shia Islam is the second-largest branch of Islam. It holds that Muhammad designated Ali ibn Abi Talib () as both his political successor ( caliph) and as the spiritual leader of the Muslim community ( imam). However, his right is understoo ...

Muslim rulers. The

Safavid dynasty The Safavid dynasty (; , ) was one of Iran's most significant ruling dynasties reigning from Safavid Iran, 1501 to 1736. Their rule is often considered the beginning of History of Iran, modern Iranian history, as well as one of the gunpowder em ...

Iran Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI) and also known as Persia, is a country in West Asia. It borders Iraq to the west, Turkey, Azerbaijan, and Armenia to the northwest, the Caspian Sea to the north, Turkmenistan to the nort ...

, who controlled the largest Shi'a Muslim state of this era, mainly used the

Persian Persian may refer to: * People and things from Iran, historically called ''Persia'' in the English language ** Persians, the majority ethnic group in Iran, not to be conflated with the Iranic peoples ** Persian language, an Iranian language of the ...

title ''

shah Shāh (; ) is a royal title meaning "king" in the Persian language.Yarshater, Ehsa, ''Iranian Studies'', vol. XXII, no. 1 (1989) Though chiefly associated with the monarchs of Iran, it was also used to refer to the leaders of numerous Per ...

'', a tradition which continued under subsequent dynasties. The term ''sultan'', by contrast, was mainly given to provincial governors within their realm.

Feminine forms

A feminine form of ''sultan'', used by Westerners, is sultana or sultanah and this title has been used legally for some (not all)

Muslim women The experiences of Muslim women ( ''Muslimāt'', singular مسلمة ''Muslimah'') vary widely between and within different societies due to culture and values that were often predating Islam's introduction to the respective regions of the w ...

monarchs and sultan's mothers and chief consorts. However, Turkish and

Ottoman Turkish Ottoman Turkish (, ; ) was the standardized register of the Turkish language in the Ottoman Empire (14th to 20th centuries CE). It borrowed extensively, in all aspects, from Arabic and Persian. It was written in the Ottoman Turkish alphabet. ...

also uses ''sultan'' for imperial lady, as

Turkish grammar Turkish grammar (), as described in this article, is the grammar of standard Turkish as spoken and written by the majority of people in Turkey. Turkish is a highly agglutinative language, in that much of the grammar is expressed by means of suffi ...

uses the same words for both women and men (such as

Hurrem Sultan Hürrem Sultan (; , "''the joyful one''"; 1505– 15 April 1558), also known as Roxelana (), was the chief consort, the first Haseki Sultan of the Ottoman Empire and the legal wife of the Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent, and the mother ...

and Sultan Suleiman Han (

)). The female leaders in

Muslim history Muslims () are people who adhere to Islam, a monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God of Abraham (or ''Allah'') as it ...

are correctly known as "sultanas". However, the wife of the sultan in the

Sultanate of Sulu The Sultanate of Sulu (; ; ) is a Sunni Muslim subnational monarchy in the Philippines, Republic of the Philippines that includes the Sulu Archipelago, coastal areas of Zamboanga City and certain portions of Palawan in today's Philippines. H ...

is styled as the "panguian" while the sultan's chief wife in many sultanates of

Indonesia Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania, between the Indian Ocean, Indian and Pacific Ocean, Pacific oceans. Comprising over List of islands of Indonesia, 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, ...

and

are known as "permaisuri", "Tunku Ampuan", "Raja Perempuan", or "Tengku Ampuan". The

queen consort A queen consort is the wife of a reigning king, and usually shares her spouse's social Imperial, royal and noble ranks, rank and status. She holds the feminine equivalent of the king's monarchical titles and may be crowned and anointed, but hi ...

especially is known as ''Raja Isteri'' with the title of ''Pengiran Anak'' suffixed, should the queen consort also be a royal princess.

Compound ruler titles

These are generally secondary titles, either lofty 'poetry' or with a message, e.g.: *''Mani Sultan'' – ''Manney Sultan'' (meaning the "Pearl of Rulers" or "Honoured Monarch") – a subsidiary title, part of the full style of the

Maharaja Maharaja (also spelled Maharajah or Maharaj; ; feminine: Maharani) is a royal title in Indian subcontinent, Indian subcontinent of Sanskrit origin. In modern India and Medieval India, medieval northern India, the title was equivalent to a pri ...

Travancore The kingdom of Travancore (), also known as the kingdom of Thiruvithamkoor () or later as Travancore State, was a kingdom that lasted from until 1949. It was ruled by the Travancore Royal Family from Padmanabhapuram, and later Thiruvanan ...

* ''

Sultan of Sultans Sultan of Sultans is the literal English translation of the Ottoman Turkish imperial title ''Sulṭānü's-Selāṭīn''. As with various other laudatory titles of Semitic origin, such as "King of Kings", Sultan of Sultans can express a claim o ...

'' – the sultanic equivalent of the style

King of Kings King of Kings, ''Mepet mepe''; , group="n" was a ruling title employed primarily by monarchs based in the Middle East and the Indian subcontinent. Commonly associated with History of Iran, Iran (historically known as name of Iran, Persia ...

* Certain secondary titles have a devout Islamic connotation; e.g.,

Sultan ul-Mujahidin ''Mujahideen'', or ''Mujahidin'' (), is the plural form of ''mujahid'' (), an Arabic term that broadly refers to people who engage in ''jihad'' (), interpreted in a jurisprudence of Islam as the fight on behalf of God, religion or the commun ...

as champion of

jihad ''Jihad'' (; ) is an Arabic word that means "exerting", "striving", or "struggling", particularly with a praiseworthy aim. In an Islamic context, it encompasses almost any effort to make personal and social life conform with God in Islam, God ...

(to strive and to struggle in the name of Allah). * ''Sultanic Highness'' – a rare, hybrid western-Islamic honorific style exclusively used by the son, daughter-in-law and daughters of Sultan

Hussein Kamel of Egypt Hussein Kamel (; 21 November 1853 – 9 October 1917) was the Sultan of Egypt from 19 December 1914 to 9 October 1917, during the United Kingdom, British protectorate over Egypt. He was the first person to hold the title of Sultan of Egypt si ...

British protectorate British protectorates were protectorates under the jurisdiction of the British government. Many territories which became British protectorates already had local rulers with whom the Crown negotiated through treaty, acknowledging their status wh ...

since 1914), who bore it with their primary titles of

Prince A prince is a male ruler (ranked below a king, grand prince, and grand duke) or a male member of a monarch's or former monarch's family. ''Prince'' is also a title of nobility (often highest), often hereditary, in some European states. The ...

('; ) or

Princess Princess is a title used by a female member of a regnant monarch's family or by a female ruler of a principality. The male equivalent is a prince (from Latin '' princeps'', meaning principal citizen). Most often, the term has been used for ...

, after 11 October 1917. They enjoyed these titles for life, even after the Royal Rescript regulating the styles and titles of the Royal House following Egypt's independence in 1922, when the sons and daughters of the newly styled king (', considered a promotion) were granted the title , or

Royal Highness Royal Highness is a style used to address or refer to some members of royal families, usually princes or princesses. Kings and their female consorts, as well as queens regnant, are usually styled ''Majesty''. When used as a direct form of a ...

. *''Sultan-ul-Qaum'' – a title meaning King of the Nation, given to 18th-century

Sikh Sikhs (singular Sikh: or ; , ) are an ethnoreligious group who adhere to Sikhism, a religion that originated in the late 15th century in the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent, based on the revelation of Guru Nanak. The term ''Si ...

leader

Jassa Singh Ahluwalia Jassa Singh Ahluwalia (3 May 1718 – 23 October 1783) was a Sikh leader during the period of the Sikh Confederacy, being the supreme leader of the Dal Khalsa (Sikh Army), Dal Khalsa. He was also Misldar of the Ahluwalia (misl), Ahluwalia Mi ...

by his supporters

Princely and aristocratic titles

Nicolas de Nicolay- La grande dame turcque

By the beginning of the 16th century, the title sultan was carried by both men and women of the Ottoman dynasty and was replacing other titles by which prominent members of the imperial family had been known (notably ''khatun'' for women and ''bey'' for men). This usage underlines the Ottoman conception of sovereign power as family prerogative. Western tradition knows the Ottoman ruler as "sultan", but Ottomans themselves used "padişah" (emperor) or "hünkar" to refer to their ruler. The emperor's formal title consisted of "sultan" together with "khan" (for example, Sultan Suleiman Khan). In formal address, the sultan's children were also entitled "sultan", with imperial princes (Şehzade) carrying the title before their given name, and imperial princesses carrying it after. For example: Şehzade Sultan Mehmed and Mihrimah Sultan, son and daughter of Suleiman the Magnificent. Like imperial princesses, the living mother and main consort of the reigning sultan also carried the title after their given names, for example:

Hafsa Sultan Ayşe Hafsa Sultan (; 1478/1479 - 19 March 1534), was a concubine of Selim I and the mother of Suleiman the Magnificent. She was the first Valide Sultan of the Ottoman Empire and, during the period between her son's enthronement in 1520 until ...

, Suleiman's mother and first

valide sultan Valide Sultan (, lit. "Sultana mother") was the title held by the mother of a ruling sultan of the Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans first formally used the title in the 16th century as an epithet of Hafsa Sultan (died 1534), mother of Sultan Suleima ...

, and

Hürrem Sultan Hürrem Sultan (; , "''the joyful one''"; 1505– 15 April 1558), also known as Roxelana (), was the chief consort, the first Haseki Sultan of the Ottoman Empire and the legal wife of the Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent, and the mothe ...

, Suleiman's chief consort and first

haseki sultan Haseki Sultan (, ''Ḫāṣekī Sulṭān'' ) was the title used for the chief consort of an Ottoman sultan. In later years, the meaning of the title changed to "imperial consort". Hurrem Sultan, principal consort and legal wife of Suleiman the ...

. The evolving usage of this title reflected power shifts among imperial women, especially between the

Sultanate of Women The Sultanate of Women () was a period when some consorts, mothers, sisters and grandmother of the sultans of the Ottoman Empire exerted extraordinary political influence. This phenomenon took place from roughly 1534 to 1715, beginning in the r ...

, as the position of main consort eroded over the course of the 17th century, with the main consort losing the title of "sultan", which was replaced by "kadin", a title related to the earlier "khatun". Henceforth, the mother of the reigning sultan was the only person of non imperial blood to carry the title "sultan". In Kazakh Khanate a Sultan was a lord from the ruling dynasty (a direct descendants of

Genghis Khan Genghis Khan (born Temüjin; August 1227), also known as Chinggis Khan, was the founder and first khan (title), khan of the Mongol Empire. After spending most of his life uniting the Mongols, Mongol tribes, he launched Mongol invasions and ...

) elected by clans, i.e. a kind of prince. The best of sultans was elected as

khan Khan may refer to: * Khan (surname), including a list of people with the name * Khan (title), a royal title for a ruler in Mongol and Turkic languages and used by various ethnicities Art and entertainment * Khan (band), an English progressiv ...

by people at

Kurultai A kurultai (, ),Derived from Russian language, Russian , ultimately from Middle Mongol ( ), whence Chinese language, Chinese 忽里勒台 ''Hūlǐlēitái'' (); ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; (). also called a qurultai, was a political and military counc ...

Military rank

In a number of post-caliphal states under

Mongol Mongols are an East Asian ethnic group native to Mongolia, China (Inner Mongolia and other 11 autonomous territories), as well as the republics of Buryatia and Kalmykia in Russia. The Mongols are the principal member of the large family of M ...

or Turkic rule, there was a

feudal Feudalism, also known as the feudal system, was a combination of legal, economic, military, cultural, and political customs that flourished in Middle Ages, medieval Europe from the 9th to 15th centuries. Broadly defined, it was a way of struc ...

type of military hierarchy. These administrations were often decimal (mainly in larger empires), using originally princely titles such as

malik Malik (; ; ; variously Romanized ''Mallik'', ''Melik'', ''Malka'', ''Malek'', ''Maleek'', ''Malick'', ''Mallick'', ''Melekh'') is the Semitic term translating to "king", recorded in East Semitic and Arabic, and as mlk in Northwest Semitic d ...

amir Emir (; ' (), also transliterated as amir, is a word of Arabic origin that can refer to a male monarch, aristocrat, holder of high-ranking military or political office, or other person possessing actual or ceremonial authority. The title has ...

as mere rank denominations. In the

Persian empire The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenian Empire, also known as the Persian Empire or First Persian Empire (; , , ), was an Iranian empire founded by Cyrus the Great of the Achaemenid dynasty in 550 BC. Based in modern-day Iran, it was the larg ...

, the rank of sultan was roughly equivalent to that of a modern-day

captain Captain is a title, an appellative for the commanding officer of a military unit; the supreme leader or highest rank officer of a navy ship, merchant ship, aeroplane, spacecraft, or other vessel; or the commander of a port, fire or police depa ...

in the West; socially in the fifth-rank class, styled ' Ali Jah.

Former sultans and sultanates

Sultanates in the Balkans, Anatolia and Central Asia

Ghaznavid Empire The Ghaznavid dynasty ( ''Ġaznaviyān'') was a Persianate Muslim dynasty of Turkic peoples, Turkic ''mamluk'' origin. It ruled the Ghaznavid Empire or the Empire of Ghazni from 977 to 1186, which at its greatest extent, extended from the Oxus ...

; its ruler,

Mahmud of Ghazni Abu al-Qasim Mahmud ibn Sabuktigin (; 2 November 971 – 30 April 1030), usually known as Mahmud of Ghazni or Mahmud Ghaznavi (), was Sultan of the Ghaznavid Empire, ruling from 998 to 1030. During his reign and in medieval sources, he is usuall ...

, was the first

Muslim Muslims () are people who adhere to Islam, a Monotheism, monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God ...

sovereign to be known as sultan. *

Great Seljuk Empire The Seljuk Empire, or the Great Seljuk Empire, was a high medieval, culturally Turco-Persian, Sunni Muslim empire, established and ruled by the Qïnïq branch of Oghuz Turks. The empire spanned a total area of from Anatolia and the Levant ...

Sultanate of Rum The Sultanate of Rum was a culturally Turco-Persian Sunni Muslim state, established over conquered Byzantine territories and peoples (Rum) of Anatolia by the Seljuk Turks following their entry into Anatolia after the Battle of Manzikert in 1071. ...

Timurid Empire The Timurid Empire was a late medieval, culturally Persianate, Turco-Mongol empire that dominated Greater Iran in the early 15th century, comprising modern-day Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan, much of Central Asia, the South Caucasus, and parts of co ...

* Kazakh Khanate

Caucasus

Elisu Sultanate The Sultanate of Elisu, also known as Elisou or Ilisu, was a sultanate in the 18th and 19th centuries. Geography, population and government Located mostly on the southern slope of the Caucasus Mountains in what is now northwest Azerbaijan, it ...

and a few others. A sultan ranked below a khan.

West Asia and North Africa

*in

: **Sultans of

Baneh Baneh () is a city in the Central District of Baneh County, Kurdistan province, Iran, serving as capital of both the county and the district. Baneh is approximately 30 km (18 miles) from Kurdistan Region in Iraq. History Historica ...

(In

Kurdistan Kurdistan (, ; ), or Greater Kurdistan, is a roughly defined geo- cultural region in West Asia wherein the Kurds form a prominent majority population and the Kurdish culture, languages, and national identity have historically been based. G ...

, members of the Ekhtiyar al-Din family governed Baneh as Sultans defending against the Ottoman frontier) **

*in

Syria Syria, officially the Syrian Arab Republic, is a country in West Asia located in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Levant. It borders the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Turkey to Syria–Turkey border, the north, Iraq to Iraq–Syria border, t ...

: ** Ayyubid Sultans ** Mamluk Sultans *in

Jordan Jordan, officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, is a country in the Southern Levant region of West Asia. Jordan is bordered by Syria to the north, Iraq to the east, Saudi Arabia to the south, and Israel and the occupied Palestinian ter ...

: **

Mamluk Sultanate The Mamluk Sultanate (), also known as Mamluk Egypt or the Mamluk Empire, was a state that ruled Egypt, the Levant and the Hejaz from the mid-13th to early 16th centuries, with Cairo as its capital. It was ruled by a military caste of mamluks ...

*in present-day

Yemen Yemen, officially the Republic of Yemen, is a country in West Asia. Located in South Arabia, southern Arabia, it borders Saudi Arabia to Saudi Arabia–Yemen border, the north, Oman to Oman–Yemen border, the northeast, the south-eastern part ...

, various small sultanates of the defunct

Aden Protectorate The Aden Protectorate ( ') was a British protectorate in southern Arabia. The protectorate evolved in the hinterland of the port of Aden and in the Hadhramaut after the conquest of Aden by the Bombay Presidency of British India in January ...

and

South Arabia South Arabia (), or Greater Yemen, is a historical region that consists of the southern region of the Arabian Peninsula in West Asia, mainly centered in what is now the Republic of Yemen, yet it has also historically included Najran, Jazan, ...

: *: Audhali, Fadhli,

Haushabi Haushabi or Hawshabi ( ''al-Ḥawshabī'' or ''al-Ḥawāshab''), or the Haushabi Sultanate ( ''Salṭanat al-Ḥawāshab''), was a state in the British Aden Protectorate. Its capital was Musaymir. The area is now part of the Republic of Yemen ...

Kathiri Kathiri (), officially the Hadhrami Kathiri Dynasty in Seiyun or the Sultanate of Seiyun (), was a sultanate in the Hadhramaut region of the southern Arabian Peninsula, in what is now part of Yemen and the Dhofari region of Oman. History The ...

, Lahej,

Lower Aulaqi Lower Aulaqi ( '), or the Lower Aulaqi Sultanate ( '), was a state in the Aden Protectorate, the Federation of Arab Emirates of the South, and its successor, the Federation of South Arabia. Its capital was Ahwar. History The Lower Aulaqi sulta ...

Lower Yafa Lower Yafa, Lower Yafa'i ( '), or the Sultanate of Lower Yafa ( ''),'' was a sultanate in the British Aden Protectorate ruled by the Al Afifi dynasty. Its capital was at Jaar. Lower Yafa was one part of Yafa'a, the other part being Upper Yafa. ...

, Mahra,

Qu'aiti Qu'aiti, '), officially the Qu'aiti State of Shihr and Mukalla ( or the Sultanate of Shihr and Mukalla, ' was a sultanate in the Hadhramaut region of the southern Arabian Peninsula, in what is now Yemen. Its capital was Mukalla, and it was di ...

Subeihi Subeihi or Subayhi ( '), or the Subeihi Sultanate ( ' or '), was the westernmost state in the western Aden Protectorate. It was one of the original " Nine Cantons" that signed protection agreements with Great Britain in the late 19th century. ...

, Upper Aulaqi,

Upper Yafa Upper Yafa or Upper Yafa'i ( ''),'' officially the State of Upper Yafa ( '')'', was a military alliance in the British Aden Protectorate and the Protectorate of South Arabia. It was ruled by the Harharah dynasty and its capital was Mahjaba, ...

and the Wahidi sultanates *in present-day

Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia, officially the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), is a country in West Asia. Located in the centre of the Middle East, it covers the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula and has a land area of about , making it the List of Asian countries ...

: ** Sultans of Nejd ** Sultans of the Hejaz *

–

Sultan of Oman The sultan of the Sultanate of Oman () is the monarchical head of state and head of government of Oman. It is the most powerful position in the country. The sultans of Oman are members of the Al Bu Said dynasty, which has been the ruling fami ...

(authentically referred to as ''Hami''), on the southern coast of the Arabian peninsula, still an independent sultanate, since 1744 (assumed the formal title of Sultan in 1861) *in

Algeria Algeria, officially the People's Democratic Republic of Algeria, is a country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It is bordered to Algeria–Tunisia border, the northeast by Tunisia; to Algeria–Libya border, the east by Libya; to Alger ...

Sultanate of Tuggurt The Sultanate of Tuggurt was a state that extended over Tuggurt, the oases of the neighbouring region and the Oued Righ valley between the fifteenth century and 1881. It was governed by sultans of the Banu Djellab dynasty. Background The city ...

, Sultans of Tlemcen *in

Egypt Egypt ( , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country spanning the Northeast Africa, northeast corner of Africa and Western Asia, southwest corner of Asia via the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to northe ...

: ** Ayyubid Sultans ** Mamluk Sultans ** Sultans of the Muhammad Ali dynasty *in

, until Mohammed V changed the style to

Malik Malik (; ; ; variously Romanized ''Mallik'', ''Melik'', ''Malka'', ''Malek'', ''Maleek'', ''Malick'', ''Mallick'', ''Melekh'') is the Semitic term translating to "king", recorded in East Semitic and Arabic, and as mlk in Northwest Semitic d ...

(king) on August 14, 1957, maintaining the subsidiary style

Amir al-Mu'minin () or Commander of the Faithful is a Muslims, Muslim title designating the supreme leader of an Ummah, Islamic community. Name Although etymology, etymologically () is equivalent to English "commander", the wide variety of its historical an ...

(Commander of the Faithful) *in

Sudan Sudan, officially the Republic of the Sudan, is a country in Northeast Africa. It borders the Central African Republic to the southwest, Chad to the west, Libya to the northwest, Egypt to the north, the Red Sea to the east, Eritrea and Ethiopi ...

: **

Darfur Darfur ( ; ) is a region of western Sudan. ''Dār'' is an Arabic word meaning "home f – the region was named Dardaju () while ruled by the Daju, who migrated from Meroë , and it was renamed Dartunjur () when the Tunjur ruled the area. ...

**Dar al-Masalit **Dar Qimr **

Funj Sultanate The Funj Sultanate, also known as Funjistan, Sultanate of Sennar (after its capital Sennar) or Blue Sultanate (due to the traditional Sudanese convention of referring to black people as blue) (), was a monarchy in what is now Sudan, northwestern ...

Sinnar Sinnar (Pronunciation: inːəɾ is a city and a municipal council in Sinnar taluka of Nashik district in the Indian state of Maharashtra. Sinnar is the third largest city in Nashik district after Nashik and Malegaon. History Traditionally ...

(Sennar) **

Kordofan Kordofan ( ') is a former province of central Sudan. In 1994 it was divided into three new federal states: North Kordofan, South Kordofan and West Kordofan. In August 2005, West Kordofan State was abolished and its territory divided between N ...

*in

Iraq Iraq, officially the Republic of Iraq, is a country in West Asia. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to Iraq–Saudi Arabia border, the south, Turkey to Iraq–Turkey border, the north, Iran to Iran–Iraq border, the east, the Persian Gulf and ...

: **

Abbasid Caliphate The Abbasid Caliphate or Abbasid Empire (; ) was the third caliphate to succeed the Islamic prophet Muhammad. It was founded by a dynasty descended from Muhammad's uncle, Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib (566–653 CE), from whom the dynasty takes ...

(autonomous provinces) **

Horn of Africa

Ajuran Sultanate The Ajuran Sultanate (, ), natively referred to as Ajuuraan, and often simply Ajuran/Ajur, was a Muslims, Muslim empire in the Horn of Africa that thrived from the Late Middle Ages, late medieval and Early modern period, early modern period. F ...

, in southern Somalia and eastern Ethiopia *

Adal Sultanate The Adal Sultanate, also known as the Adal Empire or Barr Saʿad dīn (alt. spelling ''Adel Sultanate'', ''Adal Sultanate'') (), was a medieval Sunni Muslim empire which was located in the Horn of Africa. It was founded by Sabr ad-Din III on th ...

, in western

Somaliland Somaliland, officially the Republic of Somaliland, is an List of states with limited recognition, unrecognised country in the Horn of Africa. It is located in the southern coast of the Gulf of Aden and bordered by Djibouti to the northwest, E ...

, southern

Djibouti Djibouti, officially the Republic of Djibouti, is a country in the Horn of Africa, bordered by Somalia to the south, Ethiopia to the southwest, Eritrea in the north, and the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden to the east. The country has an area ...

, and the Somali, Harari and Afar regions of

Ethiopia Ethiopia, officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, is a landlocked country located in the Horn of Africa region of East Africa. It shares borders with Eritrea to the north, Djibouti to the northeast, Somalia to the east, Ken ...

Isaaq Sultanate The Isaaq Sultanate (, Wadaad's writing, Wadaad: , ) was a Muslims, Muslim sultanate that ruled parts of the Horn of Africa in the 18th and 19th centuries. The kingdom spanned the territories of the Isaaq clan in modern-day Somaliland and Ethiopi ...

, in Somaliland and the

Somali region The Somali Region (, , ), also known as Soomaali Galbeed () and officially the Somali Regional State, is a Regions of Ethiopia, regional state in eastern Ethiopia. It is the largest region of Ethiopia. The state borders the Ethiopian regions ...

of Ethiopia *

Habr Yunis Sultanate The Habr Yunis Sultanate (, ) was a Somali kingdom that ruled parts of the Horn of Africa during the 18th century. It spanned the territories of the Habr Yunis clan which is part of the wider Isaaq in modern day Somaliland and Ethiopia. The su ...

, in Somaliland and

of Ethiopia *

Majeerteen Sultanate The Majeerteen Sultanate (, ), or Majerteen Kingdom also known as Majeerteenia and/or Migiurtinia, was a Somali kingdom centered in the Horn of Africa. Ruled by Boqor Osman Mahamuud during its golden age, the sultanate controlled the areas co ...

(Migiurtinia), in northern Somalia *

Warsangali Sultanate The Warsangali Sultanate (, ), was a Somali imperial ruling house centered in northeastern and in some parts of southeastern Somalia. It governed an area historically known as Maakhir. The sultanate was ruled in the 19th century by the influentia ...

, in northern Somalia *

Sultanate of the Geledi The Sultanate of the Geledi (, ) also known as the Gobroon dynasty,Somali Sultanate: The Geledi City-state Over 150 Years - Virginia Luling (2002) Page 229 was a Somali kingdom that ruled parts of the Horn of Africa during the late-17th century ...

, in southern Somalia *

Sultanate of Aussa The Sultanate of Aussa was a kingdom that existed in the Afar Region in southern Eritrea, eastern Ethiopia and Djibouti from the 18th to the 20th century. It was considered to be the leading monarchy of the Afar people, to whom the other Afar ru ...

, in northeastern Ethiopia *

Sultanate of Harar The Adal Sultanate, also known as the Adal Empire or Barr Saʿad dīn (alt. spelling ''Adel Sultanate'', ''Adal Sultanate'') (), was a medieval Sunni Muslim empire which was located in the Horn of Africa. It was founded by Sabr ad-Din III on th ...

, in eastern Ethiopia *Jarso Sultanate *

Sultanate of Hobyo The Sultanate of Hobyo (, ), also known as the Sultanate of Obbia,''New International Encyclopedia'', Volume 21, (Dodd, Mead: 1916), p.283. was a 19th-century Somali Sultanate in present-day northeastern and central Somalia and eastern Ethiopia ...

, in central Somalia *

Sultanate of Ifat The Sultanate of Ifat, known as Wafāt or Awfāt in Arabic texts, or the Kingdom of Zeila was a medieval Sunni Muslim state in the eastern regions of the Horn of Africa between the late 13th century and early 15th century. It was formed in pres ...

, in Somaliland, Djibouti and eastern Ethiopia *

Sultanate of Mogadishu The Sultanate of Mogadishu (, ), also known as Kingdom of Magadazo, was a medieval Muslim Somali-Arab sultanate centered in southern Somalia.M. Elfasi, Ivan Hrbe"Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century", "General History of Africa". Ret ...

, in south-central Somalia *

Sultanate of Showa The Sultanate of Shewa (also spelled Sultanate of Shoa), sometimes called the Makhzumi dynasty, was a Muslim kingdom in present-day Ethiopia. Its capital Walale was situated in northern Hararghe in Harla country. Its territory extended possibly ...

, in central Ethiopia * Bimaal Sultanate, in south eastern Somalia centred in

Merka Merca (, ) is the capital city of the Lower Shebelle province of Somalia, a historic port city in the region. It is located approximately to the southwest of the nation's capital Mogadishu. Merca is the traditional home territory of the Bimal c ...

Southeast Africa and Indian Ocean

Angoche Sultanate The Angoche Sultanate was a sultanate centered on the islands of Angoche, present-day Northern Mozambique coastline. Established in the late 15th century by dissidents from the Kilwa Sultanate, the sultanate arose during the decline of the Kilw ...

, on the Mozambiquan coast (also several neighbouring sheikdoms) *various sultans on the Comoros; however on the

Comoros The Comoros, officially the Union of the Comoros, is an archipelagic country made up of three islands in Southeastern Africa, located at the northern end of the Mozambique Channel in the Indian Ocean. Its capital and largest city is Moroni, ...

, the normally used styles were alternative native titles, including Mfalme,

Phany Several sultanates on the Comoros, an archipelago in the Indian Ocean, were founded after the introduction of Islam into the area in the 15th century. Other titles could also be ''fani'', ''mfaume'' and ''ntibe.'' Unlike sultans in many other A ...

or ''Jambé'' and the 'hegemonic' title Sultani tibe *the Maore (or Mawuti) sultanate on

Mayotte Mayotte ( ; , ; , ; , ), officially the Department of Mayotte (), is an Overseas France, overseas Overseas departments and regions of France, department and region and single territorial collectivity of France. It is one of the Overseas departm ...

(separated from the Comoros)

''Maliki''

Apparently derived from the Arabic ''

'', this was the alternative native style of the sultans of the

Kilwa Sultanate The Kilwa Sultanate was a sultanate, centered at Kilwa (an island off modern-day, Kilwa District in Lindi Region of Tanzania), whose authority, at its height, stretched over the entire length of the Swahili Coast. According to the legend, it wa ...

in Tanganyika (presently the continental part of Tanzania).

Swahili Coast

Sultanate of Zanzibar The Sultanate of Zanzibar (, ), also known as the Zanzibar Sultanate, was an East African Muslim state controlled by the Sultan of Zanzibar, in place between 1856 and 1964. The Sultanate's territories varied over time, and after a period of de ...

: two incumbents (from the Omani dynasty) since the de facto separation from Oman in 1806, the last assumed the title Sultan in 1861 at the formal separation under British auspices; since 1964 union with Tanganyika (part of

Tanzania Tanzania, officially the United Republic of Tanzania, is a country in East Africa within the African Great Lakes region. It is bordered by Uganda to the northwest; Kenya to the northeast; the Indian Ocean to the east; Mozambique and Malawi to t ...

) ''Mfalume'' is the title of various native Muslim rulers, generally rendered in Arabic and in western languages as Sultan: *in

Kenya Kenya, officially the Republic of Kenya, is a country located in East Africa. With an estimated population of more than 52.4 million as of mid-2024, Kenya is the 27th-most-populous country in the world and the 7th most populous in Africa. ...

: ** Pate on part of

Pate island Pate (Paté) Island () is located in the Indian Ocean close to the northern coast of Kenya, to which it belongs. It is the largest island in the Lamu Archipelago, which lie between the towns of Lamu and Kiunga in the former Coast Province. ...

(capital also named Pate), in the

Lamu Archipelago The Lamu Archipelago is located in the Indian Ocean close to the northern coast of Kenya, to which it belongs. The islands lie between the towns of Lamu and Kiunga. It is a part of Lamu County. The largest of the islands are Pate Island, Man ...

Wituland Wituland (also Witu, Vitu, Witu Protectorate or Swahililand) was a territory of approximately in East Africa centered on the town of Witu, just inland from the Indian Ocean port of Lamu, north of the mouth of the Tana River in what is now Keny ...

, became a German, then British protectorate *in Tanganyika (territory), Tanganyika (presently part of

): of Hadimu, on the island of that name; also styled ''Jembe''

''Sultani''

This was the native ruler's title in the Tanzanian state of Uhehe.

West and Central Africa

*In Cameroon: **Kingdom of Bamum, Bamoun (Bamun, 17th century, founded uniting 17 chieftaincies) 1918 becomes a sultanate, but in 1923 re-divided into the 17 original chieftaincies. **Bibemi, founded in 1770 – initially styled ''lamido'' **Mandara Kingdom, Mandara Sultanate, since 1715 (replacing Wandala kingdom); 1902 part of Cameroon **Rey Bouba Sultanate founded 1804 *in the Central African Republic: **Bangassou created ; 14 June 1890 under Congo Free State protectorate, 1894 under French protectorate; 1917 Sultanate suppressed by the French. **Dar al-Kuti – French protectorate since December 12, 1897 **Rafai Sultanate, April 8, 1892, under Congo Free State protectorate, March 31, 1909, under French protectorate; 1939 Sultanate suppressed **Zemio established; December 11, 1894, under Congo Free State protectorate, April 12, 1909, under French protectorate; 1923 Sultanate suppressed *in Chad: **Baguirmi Kingdom, Baguirmi (main native title: List of rulers of Baguirmi, Mbang) **Ouaddai Kingdom, Wada'i (main native title: List of rulers of Wadai, Kolak), successor state to Birgu **Dar Sila (actually a wandering group of tribes) *in Niger: Arabic alternative title of the following autochthonous rulers: ** the Amenokal of the Aïr confederation of Tuareg people, Tuareg ** the Sarkin Damagaram since the 1731 founding of the Sultanate of Damagaram (Zinder) *in Nigeria most monarchies previously had native titles, but when most in the north converted to Islam, Muslim titles were adopted, such as ''

'' and sometimes ''sultan''. ** in Sayfawa dynasty, Borno (alongside the native title ''Mai'') ** since 1817 in Sokoto (city), Sokoto, the suzerain (also styled Amir al-Mu´minin and Sarkin Musulmi) of all Fulbe jihad states and premier traditional Muslim leader in the Sahel (according to some once a caliph)

South Asia

*Kingdom of Afghanistan, Afghan Kingdom: Sultan had a different meaning. It was a high title of honour, superior to Amir and Sardar, but ranking below Shah. *Bahmani Sultanate: Bahmani Shahs *Bengal Sultanate, Sultanate of Bengal: Ilyas Shahi dynasty, Ilyas Shahi, Ganesha dynasty, Ganesha, Habshi, Hussain Shahi dynasty, Hussain Shahi, Muhammad Shah and Karrani dynasty, Karranis *Deccan sultanates, Sultanates of the Deccan: **Adil Shahi dynasty, Adil Shahi of Bijapur **Bidar Sultanate, Barid Shahi of Bidar **Berar sultanate, Imad Shahi of Berar **Ahmadnagar Sultanate, Nizam Shahi of Ahmednagar **Qutb Shahi dynasty, Qutb Shahi of Golconda *Delhi Sultanate, Sultanate of Delhi: Mamluk dynasty (Delhi), Mamluks, Khalji dynasty, Khiljis, Tughlaq dynasty, Tughlaqs, Sayyid dynasty, Sayyids and Lodi dynasty, Lodis *Gujarat Sultanate, Sultanate of Gujarat: Muzaffarids (Gujarat), Muzaffarids *Jaunpur Sultanate, Sultanate of Jaunpur: Sharqi dynasty *Farooqui dynasty, Sultanate of Kandesh: Faruqi dynasty *Malwa Sultanate, Sultanate of Malwa: three dynasties *Madurai Sultanate, Sultanate of Madurai *Sultanate of Laccadive and Cannanore: Arakkal Kingdom *History of Kashmir, Sultanate of Kashmir: Shah Mir dynasty, Shahmirids and Chak dynasty, Chaks *Sultanate of Maldives *Nawayath Sultanate, Sultanate of Hunnur

Southeast and East Asia

COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Pakoe Boewono XII de Susuhunan van Solo in de kraton TMnr 60052129

Sulu Sultan Mohammed Mahakuttah Abdullah Kiram

(formerly in the Dutch East Indies): *On Kalimantan **Sultanate of Banjar **Sultanate of Berau **Sultanate of Bulungan **Sultanate of Gunung Tabur **Sultanate of Kubu **Kutai, Kutai Kartanegara Sultanate **Mempawah Kingdom, Sultanate of Mempawah **Sultanate of Paser **Sultanate of Pontianak **Sultanate of Sambaliung **Sultanate of Sambas *On Sulawesi **Sultanate of Buton **Bone state, Sultanate of Bone **Sultanate of Gowa **Luwu, Sultanate of Luwu ** **Wajoq, Sultanate of Wajoq *On Java **Sultanate of Banten **Sultanate of Cirebon – the rulers in three of the four palaces (''kraton''), from which divided Cirebon was ruled: Kraton Kasepuhan, Kraton Kanoman and Kraton Kacirebonan (only in Kraton Kaprabonan was the ruler's title Panembahan) **Sultanate of Demak **Pajang, Sultanate of Pajang **Sumedang Larang Kingdom, Sumedang Larang Sultanate **Sultanate of Mataram (was divided into two kingdoms: the Sultanate of Yogyakarta and Sunanan Surakarta) *** Sultanate of Yogyakarta *** Surakarta Sunanate, Sunanate of Surakarta (''susuhunan'', a high-ranked monarch, equivalent to emperor) *In the Maluku Islands **Kingdom of Iha, Sultanate of Iha (Saparua) **Sultanate of Honimoa/ Siri Sori (Saparua) ** (West Seram) ** (Ambon) ** (Ambon) **Sultanate of Ternate **Sultanate of Tidore **Sultanate of Bacan **Sultanate of Jailolo ** (North Halmahera) *In the Nusa Tenggara **Bima Sultanate on Sumbawa island *In the Riau Archipelago: Riau-Lingga Sultanate, Sultanate of Riau-Lingga by secession in 1818 under the expelled sultan of Johore (on Malaya) Sultan Abdul Rahman Muadzam Syah ibni al-Marhum Sultan Mahmud *In Sumatra **Aceh Sultanate (full style ''Sultan Berdaulat Zillullah fil-Alam'') **Sultanate of Asahan ** Awak Sungai, established 17th century at the split in four of Minangkabau people, Minangkabau, in 1816 extinguished by Netherlands East Indies colonial government **Sultanate of Deli **Sultanate of Indragiri **Sultanate of Langkat (previous style Raja) **Palembang Sultanate (Darussalam), also holding the higher title of Susuhunan **Pagaruyung Kingdom, Sultanate of Pagaruyung **Peureulak, Sultanate of Perleuak **Riau-Lingga Sultanate **Samudera Pasai Sultanate **Sultanate of Serdang **Sultanate of Siak In

: * In Peninsular Malaysia, where all seven of the country's present sultanates are located: ** Sultanate of Perlis ** Sultanate of Johor ** Sultanate of Kedah ** Sultan of Kelantan, Sultanate of Kelantan ** Sultan of Pahang, Sultanate of Pahang ** Sultan of Perak, Sultanate of Perak ** Sultan of Selangor, Sultanate of Selangor ** Sultan of Terengganu, Sultanate of Terengganu * Furthermore, the ruler of Luak Jelebu, one of the constitutive states of the Negeri Sembilan confederation, had the style Sultan in addition to his principal title ''Undang Luak Jelebu''. *Sultanate of Malacca *Sultanate of Sarawak In

: * Sultan of Brunei, Brunei (on Borneo island) In China: * Dali, Yunnan, capital of the short-lived Panthay Rebellion ** Furthermore, the ''Qa´id Jami al-Muslimin'' (Leader of the Community of Muslims) of Pingnan Guo ("Pacified South State", a major Islamic rebellious polity in western Yunnan province) is usually referred to in foreign sources as Sultan. * In the Philippines: * Sultanate of Buayan * Sultanate of Maguindanao * Confederate States of Lanao, Confederation of Sultanates of Lanao *

(Sulu, Basilan, Palawan and Tawi-Tawi islands and part of eastern Sabah on North Borneo) In Thailand: * Pattani Kingdom, Sultanate of Patani * Sultanate of Singgora

Current sultans

Sultans of sovereign states * Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah, Sultan and Yang di-Pertuan Negara of Nation of Brunei, the Abode of Peace * Sultan Haitham bin Tariq, Sultan of the Oman, Sultanate of Oman Sultans in federal monarchies * Sultan Ibrahim Ismail of Johor, Ibrahim Ismail, Sultan and Yang di-Pertuan of Johor, Malaysian State of Johor, The Abode of Dignity and its occupied territories * Sultan Sallehuddin of Kedah, Sallehuddin, Sultan and Yang-di Pertuan of Kedah, Malaysian State of Kedah, the Abode of Safety * Sultan Muhammad V, Al-Sultan and Yang di-Pertuan of Kelantan, Malaysian State of Kelantan, the Abode of Bliss and its dependencies * Al-Sultan Abdullah of Pahang, Abdullah Ri'ayatuddin, Sultan and Ruler of Pahang, Malaysian State of Pahang, the Abode of Tranquility * Sultan Nazrin Shah of Perak, Nazrin Shah, Sultan, Yang di-Pertuan and the Ruler of Perak, Malaysian State of Perak, the Abode of Grace and its dependencies * Sultan Sharafuddin of Selangor, Sharafuddin Idris Shah, Sultan and Yang di-Pertuan of Selangor, Malaysian State of Selangor, the Abode of Sincerity * Sultan Mizan Zainal Abidin of Terengganu, Mizan Zainal Abidin, Sultan and Yang di-Pertuan of Terengganu, Malaysian State of Terengganu, the Abode of Faith Sultan with power within republics * Sri Sultan Hamengkubuwono X, Sultan and List of governors of Yogyakarta, Governor of Special Region of Yogyakarta, Indonesian Special Region of Yogyakarta

References

{{Authoritarian types of rule Sultans, Heads of state Islamic honorifics Military ranks Royal titles Noble titles Positions of authority Titles Ottoman titles Titles of national or ethnic leadership Titles in Afghanistan Titles in Bangladesh Titles in Pakistan Titles in Iran Titles in Oman Filipino paramount rulers Filipino royalty

History of the term

Feminine forms

Compound ruler titles

Princely and aristocratic titles

Military rank

Former sultans and sultanates

Sultanates in the Balkans, Anatolia and Central Asia

Caucasus

West Asia and North Africa

Horn of Africa

Southeast Africa and Indian Ocean

''Maliki''

Swahili Coast

''Sultani''

West and Central Africa

South Asia

Southeast and East Asia

Current sultans

See also

References