Sui-Tang Transition
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The transition from Sui to Tang (613–628), or simply the Sui-Tang transition, was the period of
Chinese history The history of China spans several millennia across a wide geographical area. Each region now considered part of the Chinese world has experienced periods of unity, fracture, prosperity, and strife. Chinese civilization first emerged in the Y ...
between the end of the
Sui dynasty The Sui dynasty ( ) was a short-lived Dynasties of China, Chinese imperial dynasty that ruled from 581 to 618. The re-unification of China proper under the Sui brought the Northern and Southern dynasties era to a close, ending a prolonged peri ...
and the start of the
Tang dynasty The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, c=唐朝), or the Tang Empire, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907, with an Wu Zhou, interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed ...
. The Sui dynasty's territories were carved into a handful of short-lived states by its officials, generals, and agrarian rebel leaders. A process of elimination and annexation followed that ultimately culminated in the consolidation of the Tang dynasty by the former Sui general
Li Yuan Emperor Gaozu of Tang (7 April 566 – 25 June 635), born Li Yuan, courtesy name Shude, was the founding emperor of the Tang dynasty of China, reigning from 618 to 626 CE. Under the Sui dynasty, Li Yuan was the governor in the area of modern- ...
. Near the end of the Sui, Li Yuan installed the puppet child emperor
Yang You Yang You, also known by his posthumous name as the Emperor Gong of Sui (隋恭帝) (605 – 14 September 619?), was an emperor of the Chinese Sui dynasty. He was installed as a puppet emperor by Li Yuan. After Li Yuan founded the Tang dynasty, ...
. Li later executed Yang and proclaimed himself emperor of the new Tang dynasty. The transition started roughly around the year of 613 when
Emperor Yang of Sui Emperor Yang of Sui (隋煬帝, 569 – 11 April 618), personal name Yang Guang (), alternative name Ying (), Xianbei name Amo (), was the second emperor of the Sui dynasty of China. Emperor Yang's original name was Yang Ying, but he was rena ...
launched his first of three campaigns against
Goguryeo Goguryeo (37 BC – 668 AD) (; ; Old Korean: Guryeo) also later known as Goryeo (; ; Middle Korean: 고ᇢ롕〮, ''kwòwlyéy''), was a Korean kingdom which was located on the northern and central parts of the Korea, Korean Peninsula an ...
, leading to a number of desertions in the army and the start of agrarian revolt against the Sui. The transition ended in 628, when Emperor Gaozu's son
Li Shimin Emperor Taizong of Tang (28January 59810July 649), previously Prince of Qin, personal name Li Shimin, was the second Emperor of China, emperor of the Tang dynasty of China, ruling from 626 to 649. He is traditionally regarded as a co-founder ...
annexed the agrarian rebel ruler
Liang Shidu Liang Shidu (梁師都) (died 3 Jun 628Emperor Taizong's biography in ''Old Book of Tang'' indicate that Liang was killed on the ''bingshen'' day of the 4th month of the 2nd year of the ''Zhenguan'' era of Emperor Taizong's reign; this correspon ...
's state of Liang, thereby once again unifying most of China under a single power.


Sui campaigns against Goguryeo and the start of rebellions

As of 611,
Sui dynasty The Sui dynasty ( ) was a short-lived Dynasties of China, Chinese imperial dynasty that ruled from 581 to 618. The re-unification of China proper under the Sui brought the Northern and Southern dynasties era to a close, ending a prolonged peri ...
experienced more than two decades of peace and prosperity, after unifying much of China and ending the
Chen dynasty The Chen dynasty (), alternatively known as the Southern Chen (南陳 / 南朝陳) in historiography, was a Dynasties in Chinese history, Chinese imperial dynasty and the fourth and last of the Northern and Southern dynasties#Southern dynasties, ...
in 589. The Eastern
Göktürks The Göktürks (; ), also known as Türks, Celestial Turks or Blue Turks, were a Turkic people in medieval Inner Asia. The Göktürks, under the leadership of Bumin Qaghan (d. 552) and his sons, succeeded the Rouran Khaganate as the main powe ...
, based on the Mongolian plateau, had since become a Sui vassal state under
Qimin Khan Yami Qaghan ( Jаmï qağan; Chinese: 啓民可汗, 啟民可汗/启民可汗; Pinyin: Qǐmín Kěhàn, Wade-Giles: Ch'i-min K'o-han, Middle Chinese ( Guangyun): ), personal name Ashina Rangan (阿史那染幹/阿史那染干, pinyin Āshǐnà r ...
Ashina Rangan and similarly with
Goguryeo Goguryeo (37 BC – 668 AD) (; ; Old Korean: Guryeo) also later known as Goryeo (; ; Middle Korean: 고ᇢ롕〮, ''kwòwlyéy''), was a Korean kingdom which was located on the northern and central parts of the Korea, Korean Peninsula an ...
, based in the
Korean peninsula Korea is a peninsular region in East Asia consisting of the Korean Peninsula, Jeju Island, and smaller islands. Since the end of World War II in 1945, it has been politically divided at or near the 38th parallel between North Korea (Dem ...
. There was one brief internal conflict between
Emperor Yang of Sui Emperor Yang of Sui (隋煬帝, 569 – 11 April 618), personal name Yang Guang (), alternative name Ying (), Xianbei name Amo (), was the second emperor of the Sui dynasty of China. Emperor Yang's original name was Yang Ying, but he was rena ...
, who became emperor in 604, and his brother
Yang Liang Yang Liang (楊諒) (570s – 604) – courtesy name Dezhang (德章), alternative name Jie (傑), nickname Yiqian (益錢) – was an imperial prince of the History of China, Chinese Sui dynasty. He was a son of Emperor Wen of Sui, Emperor Wen ...
the Prince of Han, who had not seen war. When Goguryeo's king Yeongyang refused to pay homage to Emperor Yang in 610, Emperor Yang decided to plan a campaign to conquer it, and both he and the people believed that the conquest would be easy. However, staging the attack on Goguryeo took much human and other tolls. The building of a fleet and the shipping of food and other supplies to the base of operations,
Zhuo Commandery Zhuo Commandery ( zh, 涿郡) or Fanyang Commandery ( zh, 范陽郡) was a commandery in imperial China from Han dynasty to Tang dynasty, located in modern Hebei and Beijing. Han dynasty Zhuo Commandery was established during Emperor Gao of Han' ...
(涿郡, roughly modern
Beijing Beijing, Chinese postal romanization, previously romanized as Peking, is the capital city of China. With more than 22 million residents, it is the world's List of national capitals by population, most populous national capital city as well as ...
) caused major disruptions in the farming cycle and massive deaths among those conscripted to ship the supplies to Zhuo Commandery. In response, in 611, in northern China, those who refused to be conscripted began to revolt as agrarian rebels, led by leaders such as Wang Bo (王薄) and Liu Badao (劉霸道). While Emperor Yang initially did not consider these rebels serious threats, the local governmental militias were unable to quell them. Despite this, Emperor Yang launched his first campaign against Goguryeo in 612, crossing the Liao River into Goguryeo territory in spring 612. Emperor Yang personally led part of the army to put the important city Liaodong (遼東, in modern
Liaoyang Liaoyang ( zh, s=辽阳 , t=遼陽 , p=Liáoyáng) is a prefecture-level city of east-central Liaoning province, China, situated on the Taizi River. It is approximately one hour south of Shenyang, the provincial capital, by car. Liaoyang is hom ...
,
Liaoning ) , image_skyline = , image_alt = , image_caption = Clockwise: Mukden Palace in Shenyang, Xinghai Square in Dalian, Dalian coast, Yalu River at Dandong , image_map = Liaoning in China (+all claims hatched).svg , ...
) under siege, while he sent the
Xianbei The Xianbei (; ) were an ancient nomadic people that once resided in the eastern Eurasian steppes in what is today Mongolia, Inner Mongolia, and Northeastern China. The Xianbei were likely not of a single ethnicity, but rather a multiling ...
generals
Yuwen Shu Yuwen Shu (; died 20 November 616), courtesy name Botong (伯通), formally Duke Gong of Xu (許恭公), was a Chinese military general and politician of the Sui dynasty. He was a confidant of Emperor Yang (Yang Guang) and was instrumental in Yan ...
and Yu Zhongwen (于仲文) to lead the rest of the army deep into Goguryeo territory, heading toward the Goguryeo capital
Pyongyang Pyongyang () is the Capital city, capital and largest city of North Korea, where it is sometimes labeled as the "Capital of the Revolution" (). Pyongyang is located on the Taedong River about upstream from its mouth on the Yellow Sea. Accordi ...
, joined by the fleet commanded by the southern Chinese general
Lai Hu'er Lai Hu'er, courtesy name Chongshan, titled Duke of Rong, was a general in Sui dynasty of China. He played an important role in the conquest of Chen dynasty in 589, as well as the campaigns against Goguryeo led by Emperor Yang. In history Lai Hu ...
. Emperor Yang, however, was never able to capture Liaodong, while
Yuwen The Yuwen ( < Eastern Han Chinese: *''waB-mun'' <
Ŭlchi Mundŏk Ŭlchi Mundŏk () was a military leader of early 7th century Goguryeo, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, who successfully defended Goguryeo against Sui China. He is famous for his victory at Salsu, and is often numbered among the greatest her ...
and forced to withdraw with heavy losses. By fall 612, Emperor Yang was forced to terminate the campaign and withdraw as well, with only minor territorial gains. About 300,000 men had been lost in the campaign. Undeterred, Emperor Yang launched a second campaign against Goguryeo in 613, even though the agrarian rebellions were becoming more numerous and serious. He again headed for Liaodong himself and put it under siege, while sending Yuwen Shu with another general Yang Yichen toward Pyongyang. While he was sieging Liaodong, the northern Chinese general
Yang Xuangan Yang Xuangan (楊玄感 ''Yáng Xuángǎn''; died 21 August 613''ren'yin'' day of the 8th month of the 9th year of the ''Da'ye'' era, per Emperor Yang's biography (vol.4) of ''Book of Sui'') was a Chinese military general and politician who lived d ...
, in charge of logistics near the Sui eastern capital
Luoyang Luoyang ( zh, s=洛阳, t=洛陽, p=Luòyáng) is a city located in the confluence area of the Luo River and the Yellow River in the west of Henan province, China. Governed as a prefecture-level city, it borders the provincial capital of Zheng ...
, rebelled and attacked Luoyang. When Emperor Yang heard the news, he withdrew his forces and sent Yuwen and
Qutu Tong Qutu Tong (557 – 19 November 628), titled Duke of Jiang, Xianbei name Tandouba (), was a general in the Sui dynasty, Sui and Tang dynasty, Tang dynasties of China. He was listed as one of 24 founding officials of the Tang dynasty honored on the ...
back to Luoyang ahead of himself, and Yuwen and Qutu joined with Fan Zigai (樊子蓋) and Wei Wensheng (衛文昇), the commanders of forces that Emperor Yang had left at Luoyang and
Chang'an Chang'an (; zh, t=長安, s=长安, p=Cháng'ān, first=t) is the traditional name of the city now named Xi'an and was the capital of several Chinese dynasties, ranging from 202 BCE to 907 CE. The site has been inhabited since Neolithic time ...
respectively, to defeat
Yang Xuangan Yang Xuangan (楊玄感 ''Yáng Xuángǎn''; died 21 August 613''ren'yin'' day of the 8th month of the 9th year of the ''Da'ye'' era, per Emperor Yang's biography (vol.4) of ''Book of Sui'') was a Chinese military general and politician who lived d ...
. Emperor Yang carried out heavy-handed reprisals against actual or perceived adherents of Yang Xuangan, but such actions did not deter further rebellions. Despite this, Emperor Yang launched a third campaign against Goguryeo in 614. As Lai Hu'er reached the
Yalu River The Yalu River () or Amnok River () is a river on the border between China and North Korea. Together with the Tumen River to its east, and a small portion of Paektu Mountain, the Yalu forms the border between China and North Korea. Its valle ...
, however, Goguryeo submitted, sending Yang Xuangan's Turkic confederate Husi Zheng (斛斯政), who had fled to Goguryeo, back to Sui as a sign of submission. Emperor Yang terminated the campaign, but when he again summoned Yeongyang to pay homage to him, Yeongyang ignored his summons. Emperor Yang began to plan a fourth campaign, which, however, he was never able to launch. Meanwhile, in the fall of 615, while Emperor Yang and Empress Xiao were conducting a tour of the northern frontier, Qimin Khan's son and successor
Shibi Khan Shibi Khagan (r. 609 or 611 – April 619 AD) succeeded Yami Qaghan as the second khagan of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate. Reign He succeeded Yami Qaghan in 609 or 611. From 613 to 615 he was actively supporting agrarian rebels inside China. ...
launched a surprise attack against
Yanmen Commandery Yanmen Commandery was an administrative subdivision (''jùn'') of the state of Zhao established BC and of northern imperial Chinese dynasties until AD758. It occupied lands in what is now Shanxi and Inner Mongolia. Its first seat was at Shanwu ...
as a reprisal for the emperor's proposal to give a princess to his brother and for the treacherous murder of one of his close advisors. The khan's wife Princess Yicheng, a relative of the emperor who had been personally honored by the empress during an earlier visit, sent them a secret warning about the Turkic attack. The imperial entourage fled to the fortified commandery seat at present-day
Daixian Dai County, also known by its Chinese name Daixian, is a county in Xinzhou, Shanxi Province, China. Its county seat at Shangguan is also known as Daixian. The county has an area of and had a population of 178,870 at the time of the 2020 c ...
,
Shanxi Shanxi; Chinese postal romanization, formerly romanised as Shansi is a Provinces of China, province in North China. Its capital and largest city of the province is Taiyuan, while its next most populated prefecture-level cities are Changzhi a ...
, where Shibi Khan's forces besieged them on September 11. 大業十一年 八月癸
Academia Sinica
Sima Guang, ''Zizhi Tongjian'', Vol. 182. Yu Shiji advised the emperor to raise morale among the soldiers by promising promotion and rewards, as well as promising to abandon the unpopular campaigns against
Goguryeo Goguryeo (37 BC – 668 AD) (; ; Old Korean: Guryeo) also later known as Goryeo (; ; Middle Korean: 고ᇢ롕〮, ''kwòwlyéy''), was a Korean kingdom which was located on the northern and central parts of the Korea, Korean Peninsula an ...
; this had the desired effect and Sui forces loyally rushed to the area to lift the siege. Meanwhile, however, the empress's brother
Xiao Yu Xiao Yu (575 – 19 July 648), courtesy name Shiwen, posthumously known as Duke Zhenbian of Song, was an imperial prince of the Western Liang dynasty who later became an official under the Sui and Tang dynasties. He served as a chancellor dur ...
had gotten the emperor to seek further assistance from Princess Yicheng, who was administering military affairs at home in her husband's absence. She sent a false report to the khan that a northern attack had been launched against the khaganate; between this report and others announcing the Chinese reinforcements, Shibi Khan lifted the siege and returned north. With credit for his salvation muddled, Emperor Yang followed the advice of Su Wei and
Yuwen Shu Yuwen Shu (; died 20 November 616), courtesy name Botong (伯通), formally Duke Gong of Xu (許恭公), was a Chinese military general and politician of the Sui dynasty. He was a confidant of Emperor Yang (Yang Guang) and was instrumental in Yan ...
and reneged on most of his promises, causing great resentment among the military..


Disintegration of Sui

Despite (or perhaps because of) increasing agrarian rebel activities in northern China, Emperor Yang did not return to Chang'an or stay at Luoyang, but went to Jiangdu (江都, in modern
Yangzhou Yangzhou is a prefecture-level city in central Jiangsu Province, East China. Sitting on the north bank of the Yangtze, it borders the provincial capital Nanjing to the southwest, Huai'an to the north, Yancheng to the northeast, Taizhou, Jiangsu, ...
,
Jiangsu Jiangsu is a coastal Provinces of the People's Republic of China, province in East China. It is one of the leading provinces in finance, education, technology, and tourism, with its capital in Nanjing. Jiangsu is the List of Chinese administra ...
) in fall 616. With his departure from Luoyang, the rebels near Luoyang coalesced under the leadership of Yang Xuan'gan's former strategist Li Mi, who was proclaimed the Duke of Wei and considered the presumptive eventual emperor by most rebel leaders throughout northern China. Li, however, was not able to capture Luoyang and never claimed the imperial title. Meanwhile, Yuchi Yichen made an attempt to destroy the rebels north of the
Yellow River The Yellow River, also known as Huanghe, is the second-longest river in China and the List of rivers by length, sixth-longest river system on Earth, with an estimated length of and a Drainage basin, watershed of . Beginning in the Bayan H ...
, but while he enjoyed some successes, Emperor Yang and his prime minister Yu Shiji, fearing Yuchi Yichen's military strengths, recalled him under guise of a promotion, allowing the rebel activities north of the Yellow River to reinvigorate themselves and become difficult to control, under the leadership of
Dou Jiande Dou Jiande (; 573 – 3 August 621) was a Chinese rebel leader who led the agrarian rebels who rose against the rule of Emperor Yang of Sui near the end of the Chinese Sui dynasty. Generally considered the kindest and most able of the agraria ...
. By 617, a number of other major rebel leaders also began to control significant portions of territory. These include: * Du Fuwei, agrarian rebel, occupying the modern southern
Anhui Anhui is an inland Provinces of China, province located in East China. Its provincial capital and largest city is Hefei. The province is located across the basins of the Yangtze and Huai rivers, bordering Jiangsu and Zhejiang to the east, Jiang ...
region. *
Gao Kaidao Gao Kaidao (高開道; died 624), at one point known as Li Kaidao (李開道), was an agrarian rebel leader who rose against the Sui dynasty at the end of Emperor Yang's reign. He occupied the region centering Huairong (懷戎, in modern Zhangj ...
, agrarian rebel, occupying the modern extremely northern
Hebei Hebei is a Provinces of China, province in North China. It is China's List of Chinese administrative divisions by population, sixth-most populous province, with a population of over 75 million people. Shijiazhuang is the capital city. It bor ...
region. *
Liang Shidu Liang Shidu (梁師都) (died 3 Jun 628Emperor Taizong's biography in ''Old Book of Tang'' indicate that Liang was killed on the ''bingshen'' day of the 4th month of the 2nd year of the ''Zhenguan'' era of Emperor Taizong's reign; this correspon ...
, agrarian rebel, occupying the modern central
Inner Mongolia Inner Mongolia, officially the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, is an Autonomous regions of China, autonomous region of China. Its border includes two-thirds of the length of China's China–Mongolia border, border with the country of Mongolia. ...
region, declaring himself the Emperor of Liang. * Li Gui, formerly a Sui official, occupying the modern central and western
Gansu Gansu is a provinces of China, province in Northwestern China. Its capital and largest city is Lanzhou, in the southeastern part of the province. The seventh-largest administrative district by area at , Gansu lies between the Tibetan Plateau, Ti ...
region, declaring himself the Prince of Liang. *
Li Yuan Emperor Gaozu of Tang (7 April 566 – 25 June 635), born Li Yuan, courtesy name Shude, was the founding emperor of the Tang dynasty of China, reigning from 618 to 626 CE. Under the Sui dynasty, Li Yuan was the governor in the area of modern- ...
, formerly a Sui official (and Emperor Yang's cousin), occupying the modern central
Shanxi Shanxi; Chinese postal romanization, formerly romanised as Shansi is a Provinces of China, province in North China. Its capital and largest city of the province is Taiyuan, while its next most populated prefecture-level cities are Changzhi a ...
region, announcing that he wanted to make Emperor Yang's grandson
Yang You Yang You, also known by his posthumous name as the Emperor Gong of Sui (隋恭帝) (605 – 14 September 619?), was an emperor of the Chinese Sui dynasty. He was installed as a puppet emperor by Li Yuan. After Li Yuan founded the Tang dynasty, ...
the Prince of Dai, then at Chang'an, emperor. * Lin Shihong, agrarian rebel, occupying the modern
Jiangxi ; Gan: ) , translit_lang1_type2 = , translit_lang1_info2 = , translit_lang1_type3 = , translit_lang1_info3 = , image_map = Jiangxi in China (+all claims hatched).svg , mapsize = 275px , map_caption = Location ...
and
Guangdong ) means "wide" or "vast", and has been associated with the region since the creation of Guang Prefecture in AD 226. The name "''Guang''" ultimately came from Guangxin ( zh, labels=no, first=t, t= , s=广信), an outpost established in Han dynasty ...
region, declaring himself the Emperor of Chu. *
Liu Wuzhou Liu Wuzhou (劉武周; died 28 August 622?) was a rebel leader who rose against the rule of the Chinese Sui dynasty late in the dynasty's history, and he took imperial style—although it was not completely clear whether the title he took was kh ...
, agrarian rebel, occupying the modern northern Shanxi region, declaring himself the Dingyang Khan. *
Luo Yi Luo Yi () (died 627), known during service to the Tang dynasty as Li Yi (), courtesy name Ziyan (子延) or Ziting (子廷), was a Sui dynasty official who rose against the rule of Emperor Yang of Sui and occupied the modern Beijing region. He s ...
, former a Sui general, occupying the modern
Beijing Beijing, Chinese postal romanization, previously romanized as Peking, is the capital city of China. With more than 22 million residents, it is the world's List of national capitals by population, most populous national capital city as well as ...
region. *
Xiao Xian Xiao Xian (蕭銑) (583–621) was a descendant of the imperial house of the Chinese Liang dynasty, who rose against the rule of the Sui dynasty toward the end of the rule of Emperor Yang of Sui. He tried to revive Liang, and for several year ...
, formerly a Sui official, a grandson of
Emperor Xuan of Western Liang Emperor Xuan of Western Liang ((西)梁宣帝; 519 – March or April 562), personal name Xiao Cha (蕭詧), courtesy name Lisun (理孫), was the founding emperor of the Western Liang dynasty of China. He took the throne of the Liang dynasty wi ...
, occupying the modern
Hubei Hubei is a province of China, province in Central China. It has the List of Chinese provincial-level divisions by GDP, seventh-largest economy among Chinese provinces, the second-largest within Central China, and the third-largest among inland ...
,
Hunan Hunan is an inland Provinces of China, province in Central China. Located in the middle reaches of the Yangtze watershed, it borders the Administrative divisions of China, province-level divisions of Hubei to the north, Jiangxi to the east, Gu ...
, and
Guangxi Guangxi,; officially the Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, is an Autonomous regions of China, autonomous region of the China, People's Republic of China, located in South China and bordering Vietnam (Hà Giang Province, Hà Giang, Cao Bằn ...
region, declaring himself the Emperor of Liang. * Xue Ju, agrarian rebel, occupying the modern eastern Gansu and western
Shaanxi Shaanxi is a Provinces of China, province in north Northwestern China. It borders the province-level divisions of Inner Mongolia to the north; Shanxi and Henan to the east; Hubei, Chongqing, and Sichuan to the south; and Gansu and Ningxia to t ...
region, declaring himself the Hegemonic Prince of Western Qin. * Zhu Can, formerly a Sui official, roving with his army in the modern southern
Henan Henan; alternatively Honan is a province in Central China. Henan is home to many heritage sites, including Yinxu, the ruins of the final capital of the Shang dynasty () and the Shaolin Temple. Four of the historical capitals of China, Lu ...
and southeastern Shaanxi region, first declaring himself the Prince of Jialuolou, and then the Emperor of Chu. Several of these rebel leaders—including
Li Yuan Emperor Gaozu of Tang (7 April 566 – 25 June 635), born Li Yuan, courtesy name Shude, was the founding emperor of the Tang dynasty of China, reigning from 618 to 626 CE. Under the Sui dynasty, Li Yuan was the governor in the area of modern- ...
,
Liu Wuzhou Liu Wuzhou (劉武周; died 28 August 622?) was a rebel leader who rose against the rule of the Chinese Sui dynasty late in the dynasty's history, and he took imperial style—although it was not completely clear whether the title he took was kh ...
,
Liang Shidu Liang Shidu (梁師都) (died 3 Jun 628Emperor Taizong's biography in ''Old Book of Tang'' indicate that Liang was killed on the ''bingshen'' day of the 4th month of the 2nd year of the ''Zhenguan'' era of Emperor Taizong's reign; this correspon ...
,
Dou Jiande Dou Jiande (; 573 – 3 August 621) was a Chinese rebel leader who led the agrarian rebels who rose against the rule of Emperor Yang of Sui near the end of the Chinese Sui dynasty. Generally considered the kindest and most able of the agraria ...
, and
Gao Kaidao Gao Kaidao (高開道; died 624), at one point known as Li Kaidao (李開道), was an agrarian rebel leader who rose against the Sui dynasty at the end of Emperor Yang's reign. He occupied the region centering Huairong (懷戎, in modern Zhangj ...
—formally submitted to Ashina Duojishi and received Eastern Göktürk military aid, with Ashina Duojishi's strategy apparently to keep China divided. In winter 617, Li Yuan captured Chang'an, declaring Yang You emperor (as Emperor Gong), while honoring Emperor Yang as ''
Taishang Huang In Chinese history, a Taishang Huang or Taishang Huangdi is an honorific and institution of a retired emperor. The former emperor had, at least in name, abdicated in favor of someone else. Although no longer the reigning sovereign, there are ins ...
'' (retired emperor); these declarations were not recognized by most of Sui territory, which still recognized Emperor Yang as emperor. Li himself became regent with the title of Prince of Tang.


Death of Emperor Yang, founding of Tang, and end of Sui

Meanwhile, Emperor Yang, while realizing that the empire was in turmoil, felt secure under the protection of the elite Xiaoguo Army (驍果) at Jiangdu. While he sent his general
Wang Shichong Wang Shichong (; 567– August 621), courtesy name Xingman (行滿), was a Chinese military general, monarch, and politician during the Sui dynasty who deposed Sui's last emperor Yang Tong and briefly ruled as the emperor of a succeeding state ...
to Luoyang to try to defend Luoyang against Li Mi's attacks, he did little quell the rebellions otherwise. Not wanting to return to north China, he considered officially moving the capital to Danyang (丹楊, in modern
Nanjing Nanjing or Nanking is the capital of Jiangsu, a province in East China. The city, which is located in the southwestern corner of the province, has 11 districts, an administrative area of , and a population of 9,423,400. Situated in the Yang ...
,
Jiangsu Jiangsu is a coastal Provinces of the People's Republic of China, province in East China. It is one of the leading provinces in finance, education, technology, and tourism, with its capital in Nanjing. Jiangsu is the List of Chinese administra ...
, south of the
Yangtze River The Yangtze or Yangzi ( or ) is the longest river in Eurasia and the third-longest in the world. It rises at Jari Hill in the Tanggula Mountains of the Tibetan Plateau and flows including Dam Qu River the longest source of the Yangtze, i ...
). Meanwhile, the Xiaoguo Army soldiers, who were predominantly northerners and missed their homes, began to desert, and this met with heavy-handed punishment from Emperor Yang. In fear, the remaining Xiaoguo Army officers formed a plot, supporting the general
Yuwen Huaji Yuwen Huaji (; died March 22, 619) was a Chinese military general, monarch, and politician of the Sui dynasty who, in 618, led a coup against and murdered Emperor Yang of Sui. He subsequently declared Emperor Yang's nephew Yang Hao emperor and ...
the Duke of Xu (
Yuwen Shu Yuwen Shu (; died 20 November 616), courtesy name Botong (伯通), formally Duke Gong of Xu (許恭公), was a Chinese military general and politician of the Sui dynasty. He was a confidant of Emperor Yang (Yang Guang) and was instrumental in Yan ...
's son) as their leader. In spring 618, they carried out a coup and killed Emperor Yang. Yuwen declared Emperor Yang's nephew Yang Hao, the Prince of Qin, the new emperor, but retained power himself as regent. He abandoned Jiangdu and headed back north, commanding the Xiaoguo Army.


Death of Yang You

Soon, news of Emperor Yang's death spread throughout the empire. At Chang'an,
Li Yuan Emperor Gaozu of Tang (7 April 566 – 25 June 635), born Li Yuan, courtesy name Shude, was the founding emperor of the Tang dynasty of China, reigning from 618 to 626 CE. Under the Sui dynasty, Li Yuan was the governor in the area of modern- ...
executed
Yang You Yang You, also known by his posthumous name as the Emperor Gong of Sui (隋恭帝) (605 – 14 September 619?), was an emperor of the Chinese Sui dynasty. He was installed as a puppet emperor by Li Yuan. After Li Yuan founded the Tang dynasty, ...
, establishing the
Tang dynasty The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, c=唐朝), or the Tang Empire, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907, with an Wu Zhou, interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed ...
as Emperor Gaozu. At Luoyang, seven of the leading officials declared another grandson of Emperor Yang,
Yang Tong Yang Tong (; 600s – June or July 619), known in traditional histories by his princely title of Prince of Yue (越王) or by his Chinese era name, era name as Lord Huangtai (皇泰主), also known by his posthumous name as the Emperor Gong of S ...
the Prince of Yue, emperor, and Yang Tong was recognized as Sui's emperor by most of the commanderies that still recognized Sui sovereignty. With both the Sui administration at Luoyang and Li Mi fearing Yuwen's northward advancement, they formed a temporary alliance in which Li Mi recognized Yang Tong as his sovereign. After Li Mi repelled
Yuwen Huaji Yuwen Huaji (; died March 22, 619) was a Chinese military general, monarch, and politician of the Sui dynasty who, in 618, led a coup against and murdered Emperor Yang of Sui. He subsequently declared Emperor Yang's nephew Yang Hao emperor and ...
, however,
Wang Shichong Wang Shichong (; 567– August 621), courtesy name Xingman (行滿), was a Chinese military general, monarch, and politician during the Sui dynasty who deposed Sui's last emperor Yang Tong and briefly ruled as the emperor of a succeeding state ...
, who opposed the alliance, seized power from the other officials and became regent, and the alliance with Li Mi was broken. Later that year, in a
surprise attack Military deception (MILDEC) is an attempt by a military unit to gain an advantage during warfare by misleading adversary decision makers into taking action or inaction that creates favorable conditions for the deceiving force. This is usually ...
, Wang defeated Li Mi, forcing Li Mi to flee to Tang. Li Mi was later killed by Tang forces when he tried to reestablish his own independence.


Rise of Li Shimin

Meanwhile, after Xue Ju died in early 618 and was succeeded by his son
Xue Rengao Xue Rengao (; died 618), also known as Xue Renguo (),The ''Old Book of Tang'' and the ''New Book of Tang'' both gave his name as Xue Rengao, but the ''Zizhi Tongjian'' gave his name as Xue Renguo. was an emperor of the short-lived state of Qin, ...
, the Tang general
Li Shimin Emperor Taizong of Tang (28January 59810July 649), previously Prince of Qin, personal name Li Shimin, was the second Emperor of China, emperor of the Tang dynasty of China, ruling from 626 to 649. He is traditionally regarded as a co-founder ...
the Prince of Qin (Emperor Gaozu's son) defeated and killed Xue Rengao, annexing his Qin state into Tang. At the same time,
Dou Jiande Dou Jiande (; 573 – 3 August 621) was a Chinese rebel leader who led the agrarian rebels who rose against the rule of Emperor Yang of Sui near the end of the Chinese Sui dynasty. Generally considered the kindest and most able of the agraria ...
further consolidated his holdings north of the Yellow River and killed Yuwen Huaji (who had poisoned Yang Hao and declared himself Emperor of Xu), but was unable to get
Luo Yi Luo Yi () (died 627), known during service to the Tang dynasty as Li Yi (), courtesy name Ziyan (子延) or Ziting (子廷), was a Sui dynasty official who rose against the rule of Emperor Yang of Sui and occupied the modern Beijing region. He s ...
to submit to him, and Luo subsequently submitted to Tang. Around the same time, Zhu Can, facing heavy resistance from the populace against his cruelty, vacillated between submitting to Yang Tong's Sui regime and Tang, eventually surrendering to Sui. In summer 619, Wang Shichong had Yang Tong yield the throne to him, ending Sui and establishing a new state of Zheng as its emperor.


Reintegration under Tang

Around the same time, Li Gui's official An Xinggui (安興貴) captured Li Gui in a coup and surrendered the state to Tang. Tang, however, was facing a threat on a different front, as
Liu Wuzhou Liu Wuzhou (劉武周; died 28 August 622?) was a rebel leader who rose against the rule of the Chinese Sui dynasty late in the dynasty's history, and he took imperial style—although it was not completely clear whether the title he took was kh ...
made a major attack south, taking over much of modern Shanxi, which Tang had controlled, and appearing poised to further attack Tang's capital Chang'an. Around the same time, the lower
Yangtze The Yangtze or Yangzi ( or ) is the longest river in Eurasia and the third-longest in the world. It rises at Jari Hill in the Tanggula Mountains of the Tibetan Plateau and flows including Dam Qu River the longest source of the Yangtze, i ...
region, which had been in a state of confusion ever since Emperor Yang's death, was coalescing around three different competing figures—the former Sui official Shen Faxing, who declared himself the Prince of Liang and controlled much of the territory south of the Yangtze; the rebel leader Li Zitong, who controlled Jiangdu and the surrounding regions, declaring himself the Emperor of Wu; and Du Fuwei, who submitted to Tang and was created the Prince of Wu. In late 619, Tang forces, commanded by
Li Shimin Emperor Taizong of Tang (28January 59810July 649), previously Prince of Qin, personal name Li Shimin, was the second Emperor of China, emperor of the Tang dynasty of China, ruling from 626 to 649. He is traditionally regarded as a co-founder ...
, began a counterattack against Liu Wuzhou. By summer 620, Li Shimin had defeated Liu, who abandoned his territory and fled to Eastern Göktürk. His Dingyang state was integrated into Tang. After defeating Dingyang, Li Shimin had his sights set on Zheng. He advanced to the Zheng capital Luoyang and put it under siege. Many Zheng cities surrendered to Tang, forcing
Wang Shichong Wang Shichong (; 567– August 621), courtesy name Xingman (行滿), was a Chinese military general, monarch, and politician during the Sui dynasty who deposed Sui's last emperor Yang Tong and briefly ruled as the emperor of a succeeding state ...
to seek aid from Dou Jiande's Xia state. Dou, reasoning that if Tang destroyed Zheng, his own Xia would be cornered, agreed, and he advanced south toward Luoyang, seeking to lift the siege. Around the same time, Du Fuwei (now using the name Li Fuwei, having been granted the imperial surname of Li by Emperor Gaozu) defeated Li Zitong, who in turn defeated Shen, forcing him to commit suicide. Li Zitong now had Shen's former territory, while Li Zitong's former territory was held by Li Fuwei in Tang's name. In spring 621, with Dou approaching, Li Shimin advanced east to the important Hulao Pass and held position there. When Dou engaged him, he defeated Dou and captured him. In fear, Wang surrendered. Emperor Gaozu executed Dou while exiling Wang (although Wang was subsequently killed by the Tang general Dugu Xiude (獨孤修德), whose father had been executed by Wang). Wang's Zheng state and Dou's Xia state were annexed by Tang, although former Xia territory soon rose under the leadership of Dou's general
Liu Heita Liu Heita () (died March 623( 德六年月，刘黑闼伏诛。) ''Xin Tang Shu'', vol.01; the month corresponds to 7 Mar to 5 Apr 623 in the Julian calendar. Vol.190 of ''Zizhi Tongjian'' dated Liu's capture to the ''ji'mao'' day of the 1st m ...
, who declared himself the Prince of Handong, and modern
Shandong Shandong is a coastal Provinces of China, province in East China. Shandong has played a major role in Chinese history since the beginning of Chinese civilization along the lower reaches of the Yellow River. It has served as a pivotal cultural ...
, which had been controlled by the agrarian leader
Xu Yuanlang Xu Yuanlang (徐圓朗) (died 26 March 623) was an agrarian rebel leader who rose against the rule of the Chinese Sui dynasty late in the reign of Emperor Yang of Sui. After doing so, he did not initially claim any royal title, instead successiv ...
but had successively submitted to Zheng and then to Tang, rose as well under Xu, who declared himself the Prince of Lu. Also in 621, Emperor Gaozu's nephew Li Xiaogong the Prince of Zhao Commandery attacked
Xiao Xian Xiao Xian (蕭銑) (583–621) was a descendant of the imperial house of the Chinese Liang dynasty, who rose against the rule of the Sui dynasty toward the end of the rule of Emperor Yang of Sui. He tried to revive Liang, and for several year ...
's Liang state in southern China, putting the Liang capital Jiangling under siege. Xiao, not realizing that relief forces were approaching, surrendered, and most of his state was annexed by Tang, while some of Xiao's army submitted to Lin Shihong. Around the same time, Li Fuwei defeated Li Zitong, forcing Li Zitong's surrender, and Li Zitong's Wu state was also annexed by Tang. In spring 622, Li Shimin defeated Liu Heita, forcing Liu to flee to the Eastern Göktürks, but Liu returned later that year with Eastern Göktürk aid, reoccupying the former Xia territory. In winter 622, Li Shimin's older brother
Li Jiancheng Li Jiancheng (; 589 – July 2, 626, formally Crown Prince Yin (, literally, "the hidden crown prince"), nickname Vaishravana (; Sanskrit: Vaiśravaṇa), was the first crown prince of the Chinese Tang dynasty. He was the oldest son of the foun ...
the
Crown Prince A crown prince or hereditary prince is the heir apparent to the throne in a royal or imperial monarchy. The female form of the title, crown princess, is held by a woman who is heir apparent or is married to the heir apparent. ''Crown prince ...
defeated Liu again, and in spring 623, Liu, in flight, was betrayed by his official
Zhuge Zhuge in Chinese, Jegal in Korean, Gia Cát in Vietnamese or Morokuzu in Japanese is a compound surname in East Asia. It is ranked 314th in ''Hundred Family Surnames'' in China. The surname has often been synonymous with wisdom in Chinese culture ...
Dewei (諸葛德威) and executed by Li Jiancheng. Earlier, Lin Shihong had died, and his Chu state dissipated, with the cities gradually submitting to Tang, and soon after Liu's death, Xu, who had repeatedly been defeated by Tang forces, was also killed in flight. By this point, other than Liang Shidu and
Gao Kaidao Gao Kaidao (高開道; died 624), at one point known as Li Kaidao (李開道), was an agrarian rebel leader who rose against the Sui dynasty at the end of Emperor Yang's reign. He occupied the region centering Huairong (懷戎, in modern Zhangj ...
in the extreme north, China was largely reunited, if somewhat nominally, under Tang rule. In fall 623, however, with Li Fuwei at Chang'an, Li Fuwei's lieutenant
Fu Gongshi Fu Gongshi (輔公祏; died 624) was an agrarian rebel leader who served as Du Fuwei's lieutenant during the disintegration of the Chinese Sui dynasty, who later followed Du in submitting to the Tang dynasty. In 623, while Du (by that point kno ...
rebelled at Danyang, declaring himself the Emperor of Song and controlling the territory formerly under Li Fuwei's control. By 624, Li Xiaogong had defeated and killed Fu, reintegrating Song territory into Tang, while Gao, faced with a coup led by his subordinate Zhang Jinshu (張金樹), committed suicide, and his Yan state was also integrated into Tang. Meanwhile, Liang Shidu, protected by Eastern Göktürk aid, was holding up against Tang attacks, and Tang itself was continually harassed by Eastern Göktürk raids. After
Li Shimin Emperor Taizong of Tang (28January 59810July 649), previously Prince of Qin, personal name Li Shimin, was the second Emperor of China, emperor of the Tang dynasty of China, ruling from 626 to 649. He is traditionally regarded as a co-founder ...
ambushed and killed
Li Jiancheng Li Jiancheng (; 589 – July 2, 626, formally Crown Prince Yin (, literally, "the hidden crown prince"), nickname Vaishravana (; Sanskrit: Vaiśravaṇa), was the first crown prince of the Chinese Tang dynasty. He was the oldest son of the foun ...
and another brother,
Li Yuanji Li Yuanji ( Chinese: 李元吉, Pinyin: Lǐ Yuánjí) (603 – 2 July 626), formally Prince La of Chao (巢剌王), more commonly known by the title of Prince of Qi (齊王), nickname Sanhu (三胡), was an imperial prince of the Chinese Tang dy ...
the Prince of Qi in 626 and effectively forced Emperor Gaozu to yield the throne to him (as Emperor Taizong), however, Tang began to turn the situation around. By 628, with Eastern Göktürk in internal turmoil due to disagreements between the
Jiali Khan Illig Qaghan (Old Turkic: ; ; died 13 February 634), born Ashina Duobi (), posthumous name Prince Huang of Guiyi (歸義荒王), was the last qaghan of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate. Background He was a son of Yami Qaghan and his Tuyuhun wife ...
Ashina Duobi (Ashina Duojishi's younger brother) and the subordinate Tuli Khan, Ashina Shibobi (阿史那什鉢苾, Ashina Duojishi's son), it was no longer able to protect Liang Shidu, and under Tang siege, Liang Shidu's cousin Liang Luoren (梁洛仁) killed Liang Shidu and surrendered. China was now under the rule of Emperor Taizong.


See also

*
Transition from Ming to Qing The transition from Ming to Qing (or simply the Ming-Qing transition) or the Manchu conquest of China from 1618 to 1683 saw the transition between two major dynasties in Chinese history. It was a decades-long conflict between the emerging Qing ...


References


Citations


Bibliography

* . * ''
Zizhi Tongjian The ''Zizhi Tongjian'' (1084) is a chronicle published during the Northern Song dynasty (960–1127) that provides a record of Chinese history from 403 BC to 959 AD, covering 16 dynasties and spanning almost 1400 years. The main text is ...
'', vols.
181 Year 181 ( CLXXXI) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Aurelius and Burrus (or, less frequently, year 934 ''Ab urbe condita''). The denomination 181 for this ye ...
, 182,
183 Year 183 ( CLXXXIII) was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known in Rome as the Year of the Consulship of Aurelius and Victorinus (or, less frequently, year 936 ''Ab urbe condita''). The denomination ...
,
184 __NOTOC__ Year 184 ( CLXXXIV) was a leap year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Eggius and Aelianus (or, less frequently, year 937 ''Ab urbe condita''). The denomination 18 ...
, 185, 186, 187,
188 Year 188 (CLXXXVIII) was a leap year starting on Monday of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known in the Roman Empire as the Year of the Consulship of Fuscianus and Silanus (or, less frequently, year 941 ''Ab urbe condita''). The denomi ...
,
189 Year 189 ( CLXXXIX) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Silanus and Silanus (or, less frequently, year 942 ''Ab urbe condita''). The denomination 189 for th ...
, 190,
191 Year 191 ( CXCI) was a common year starting on Friday of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Apronianus and Bradua (or, less frequently, year 944 ''Ab urbe condita''). The denomination 191 for this ye ...
,
192 Year 192 ( CXCII) was a leap year starting on Saturday of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Aelius and Pertinax (or, less frequently, year 945 ''Ab urbe condita''). The denomination 192 for this yea ...
. *
Bo Yang Bo Yang ( zh , t = 柏楊 , s = 柏杨 , p = Bó Yáng ; 7 March 1920 – 29 April 2008), sometimes also erroneously called Bai Yang, was a Chinese people, Chinese historian, novelist, philosopher, poet based in Taiwan. He is also regarded as a ...
, ''Outlines of the History of the Chinese'' (中國人史綱), vol. 2, pp. 484–495. {{authority control 610s 614 620s 628 7th century in China Civil wars in China Göktürks Wars of succession involving the states and peoples of Asia