
() or , often referred to as , is the
umbrella term
Hypernymy and hyponymy are the wikt:Wiktionary:Semantic relations, semantic relations between a generic term (''hypernym'') and a more specific term (''hyponym''). The hypernym is also called a ''supertype'', ''umbrella term'', or ''blanket term ...
for many different kinds of
fraternity
A fraternity (; whence, "wikt:brotherhood, brotherhood") or fraternal organization is an organization, society, club (organization), club or fraternal order traditionally of men but also women associated together for various religious or secular ...
-type associations in
German-speaking countries, including
Corps
Corps (; plural ''corps'' ; from French , from the Latin "body") is a term used for several different kinds of organization. A military innovation by Napoleon I, the formation was formally introduced March 1, 1800, when Napoleon ordered Gener ...
, , , , and
Catholic fraternities. Worldwide, there are over 1,600 , about a thousand in Germany, with a total of over 190,000 members. These fraternities are organized by umbrella groups.
In them, students spend their university years in an organized community, whose members stay connected even after graduation. A goal of this lifelong bond () is to create contacts and friendships over many generations and to facilitate networking. The is very important for the longevity of these networks.
Their autonomous and
grassroots democratic is also an important similarity of all student corporations. Apart from the and the , every Studentenverbindung also has a so-called (borrowed from French for 'how'). The is a body of rules that organize various aspects of fraternity life such as the ,
academic fencing (), and general rules of conduct.
Fraternities of this particular type are present in
Germany
Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It lies between the Baltic Sea and the North Sea to the north and the Alps to the south. Its sixteen States of Germany, constituent states have a total popu ...
,
Austria
Austria, formally the Republic of Austria, is a landlocked country in Central Europe, lying in the Eastern Alps. It is a federation of nine Federal states of Austria, states, of which the capital Vienna is the List of largest cities in Aust ...
,
Switzerland
Switzerland, officially the Swiss Confederation, is a landlocked country located in west-central Europe. It is bordered by Italy to the south, France to the west, Germany to the north, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east. Switzerland ...
,
Belgium
Belgium, officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a country in Northwestern Europe. Situated in a coastal lowland region known as the Low Countries, it is bordered by the Netherlands to the north, Germany to the east, Luxembourg to the southeas ...
,
Hungary
Hungary is a landlocked country in Central Europe. Spanning much of the Pannonian Basin, Carpathian Basin, it is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine to the northeast, Romania to the east and southeast, Serbia to the south, Croatia and ...
,
Latvia
Latvia, officially the Republic of Latvia, is a country in the Baltic region of Northern Europe. It is one of the three Baltic states, along with Estonia to the north and Lithuania to the south. It borders Russia to the east and Belarus to t ...
,
Estonia
Estonia, officially the Republic of Estonia, is a country in Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland across from Finland, to the west by the Baltic Sea across from Sweden, to the south by Latvia, and to the east by Ru ...
,
(formerly) German or German-speaking areas and other smaller communities in Europe, and
Chile
Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a country in western South America. It is the southernmost country in the world and the closest to Antarctica, stretching along a narrow strip of land between the Andes, Andes Mountains and the Paci ...
. These groups originated in the 19th century when Napoleon occupied the independent states of Germany.
Fraternities were a way to express nationalism in an era when there was a push for national unity.
The first fraternity, established in 1812, adopting the colors of a Prussian volunteer military unit.
In the era of the
German Empire
The German Empire (),; ; World Book, Inc. ''The World Book dictionary, Volume 1''. World Book, Inc., 2003. p. 572. States that Deutsches Reich translates as "German Realm" and was a former official name of Germany. also referred to as Imperia ...
, half of male students joined a fraternity.
In the 1950s, this number had declined to thirty percent.
Between one and two percent of all current students in Germany are active members of a .
[wdr.de](_blank)
/ref> These groups are mostly based in Heidelberg
Heidelberg (; ; ) is the List of cities in Baden-Württemberg by population, fifth-largest city in the States of Germany, German state of Baden-Württemberg, and with a population of about 163,000, of which roughly a quarter consists of studen ...
, Marburg, and Tübingen
Tübingen (; ) is a traditional college town, university city in central Baden-Württemberg, Germany. It is situated south of the state capital, Stuttgart, and developed on both sides of the Neckar and Ammer (Neckar), Ammer rivers. about one in ...
. The decline in fraternal membership stems from a perception that these groups are anachronistic, even "stuffy", with right-wing views of manhood. In the 21st century, there have been several scandals linking German fraternities to racism and sexism. Some fraternities require new members to pass a test on 19th and 20th century German history; German citizenship is also another common requirement.
Organization
Studentenverbindungen consist of active members who are students currently enrolled at a university, and the graduated ''Alte Herren,'' ''Altherren'' or ''Philister'' (Elder Gentlemen or alumni) / ''Hohe Damen'' (High Ladies) that were once active in these corporations and now provide guidance and the necessary financial backing.
The active students are commonly divided into four groups: the new, first year , the loose associate , the ''Burschen'' (German for ''fellow'', full members), and the inactive ''Burschen'' (having been members for a set time limit, usually three or four semesters) forming the fraternity's active core.
The fourth group, the ''Chargen'' are ''Burschen'' elected by the former groups' democratic vote and entitled to decide on certain situations of everyday fraternity life. Common ''Chargierte'' are the ''Senior'' (signing his name with an ''x'' at the end e.g. ''Mustermann Z! x''), ''Consenior'' (xx) and the ''Drittchargierter'', or often also called ''Scriptor'' (xxx). The ''Senior's'' task is mainly to represent the fraternity to the outside and to lead it. The ''Consenior'' assists the ''Senior'' but mainly focuses on imparting the fencing
Fencing is a combat sport that features sword fighting. It consists of three primary disciplines: Foil (fencing), foil, épée, and Sabre (fencing), sabre (also spelled ''saber''), each with its own blade and set of rules. Most competitive fe ...
practice, the organization of fraternity events, and the constant contact with fellow female students. Whilst the ''Drittchargierter'' is in charge of mail correspondence, finance, and diplomacy. Another ''Function'' often referred to as a Charge (Chargierter) is the so-called ''Fuchsmajor'' (FM). He is in charge of the and teaches them everything they need to know in fraternity life, except for fencing.
Studentenverbindungen, especially older ones, often possess large mansions, the , in which active members live. It usually consists of a dormitory and common rooms for festivities, most notably the ( pub), celebrations regularly involving student songs and other traditions.
One of the many benefits of joining a fraternity in Germany is the especially low pricing of the often high-quality rooms. Because ''Studentenverbindungen'' are much less prevalent in campus life in comparison to US fraternities, some actively try to recruit new members through these low-priced rooms. After a certain period, the ''Fuchsenzeit'', these new members have the opportunity to learn the traditions. After successful completion of all necessary tests and examinations, they are usually accepted as full members.
Once finished with higher education and having started a career, the inactive ''Burschen'' are asked to resign from the fraternity's core members and become ''Alte Herren'' or ''Philister''. This involves losing influence in active fraternity life and in voting in the core fraternity's democratic process, allowing younger generations to take their place. Major decisions, though, are still made by an annual Convent where every member, student or not, has at least one vote; the ''Alte Herren Commission'' (short ''AHC'') which represent all ''Alte Herren'' usually have double votes and veto rights. They also take care of the financial overview and supervise the ''Verbindungshaus''.
Furthermore, all ''Alte Herren'' are commonly asked to pay a certain annual sum to help sustain the fraternity fiscally, to actively participate in democratic decisions concerning only ''Alte Herren'', and to pay regular visits to the fraternity's festivities.
A notable characteristic of this structure is that the relationship between active members and ''Alte Herren'' is usually so close that even the youngest members are asked to address even their most decorated ''Alte Herren'' by ''Du'', the intimate form of addressing someone in German, or even by their first names. This commonly includes referring to one another as "''Verbindungsbruder''" (''Brother''). As it is possible for any ''Verbindung'' to forge treaties with another, this may also be extended to members of other fraternities. This relationship between the old and the young allows young members to learn how to bear responsibilities themselves.
Mensur
To laymen, the most well-known tradition of ''Studentenverbindungen'' is the '' Mensur'', a special form of very strictly regulated, fixed-stance fencing ritual. The ''Mensur'' is practised with sharp blades, and although the eyes are protected, it allows for cosmetic facial wounds, which often result in a scar which is called Schmiss. The scars are a point of pride that demonstrate the member's "readiness to fight".
Fencing is not a requirement of all fraternities. ''Mensur'' is the most central principle to some ''Verbindungen'', especially of the ''Corps
Corps (; plural ''corps'' ; from French , from the Latin "body") is a term used for several different kinds of organization. A military innovation by Napoleon I, the formation was formally introduced March 1, 1800, when Napoleon ordered Gener ...
'', '' Burschenschaften'' and Landsmannschaften. Other ''Verbindungen'' allow their members to fence voluntarily, but the majority of these now forbid their members to fence. In particular, Christian fraternities decline the ''Mensur'' from general ethical perspectives, with Catholic fraternities even being formally restricted on the ground of the 5th commandment ''"You shall not kill"'', which includes the integrity of the God-given body in general.
Hallmarks
Couleur
Visually, the most discerning characteristic of many Studentenverbindungen is the so-called ''Couleur'', which can consist of anything from a small piece of ribbon worn over the belt to elaborate uniforms with riding boots, sabers, and colorful cavalry jackets, depending on circumstances and tradition. Most commonly, a thin sash displaying (usually) three distinctive colors is worn in everyday life; this is called ''Band''. Although this display was common in the past ( Wilhelmine period), it is not as common at German universities anymore.
Color-wearing ("farbentragend") Studentenverbindungen are those whose members wear a ''Band'' and headwear with their fraternity's colors. Many Burschenschaften wear the color combination Black-Red-Gold as a historical symbol for German unity. These colors were first worn by the Urburschenschaft in 1815.
There are also color-carrying or -bearing ("farbenführend") Verbindungen: while their members do not wear a sash, their colors are often represented in their uniforms and other Couleur, like flags.
Another visual hallmark is the , a monogram containing the fraternity's initials and the letters ''v'', ''c'', and ''f'' for the Latin words ('live, grow, flourish') or ('long live the circle of brothers'). The Zirkel is followed by an explanation point. In fraternity documents, members sign their names with a after their signature. Today, are often worn on the caps of new members.
File:Rhenanenzirkel.png, Corps Rhenania Heidelberg
File:Zirkel Ascania Köln.png, Burschenschaft Ascania Cologne
Cologne ( ; ; ) is the largest city of the States of Germany, German state of North Rhine-Westphalia and the List of cities in Germany by population, fourth-most populous city of Germany with nearly 1.1 million inhabitants in the city pr ...
File:Zirkel_der_Wingolfverbindung_Chattia_zu_Aachen.svg, Chattia Aachen
File:Zirkel der Hubertia Freiburg.jpg, Corps Hubertia Freiburg
File:Zirkel Marchia.tif, K.D.St.V. Marchia ( Breslau) Aachen
Aachen is the List of cities in North Rhine-Westphalia by population, 13th-largest city in North Rhine-Westphalia and the List of cities in Germany by population, 27th-largest city of Germany, with around 261,000 inhabitants.
Aachen is locat ...
File:Zirkel wiki glatt.JPG, Burschenschaft Germania Braunschweig
Braunschweig () or Brunswick ( ; from Low German , local dialect: ) is a List of cities and towns in Germany, city in Lower Saxony, Germany, north of the Harz Mountains at the farthest navigable point of the river Oker, which connects it to the ...
File:Landsmannschaft Zaringia!.jpg, Landsmannschaft Zaringia Heidelberg
Coat of arms
Studentenverbindungen's coats of arms do not strictly follow heraldic rules; their use started around the year 1800.
The escutcheon is often divided into four, Burschenschaften's most commonly by a cross. These fields are filled with various nonheraldic symbols, for example, with the fraternity's colors, the Zirkel, allusions to their university or city, and other regional heraldic elements, also symbols for friendship and eternity, that are taken from Freemasons and antiquity.
Corps Rhenania Heidelberg Vollwappen.jpg, Corps Rhenania Heidelberg
R-F!Wappen.png, K.D.St.V. Rheno-Franconia München
Wappen des Corps Hubertia Freiburg.jpg, Corps Hubertia Freiburg
Wapenschild K.A.V. Lovania Leuven.png, K.A.V. Lovania Leuven
Raczeks (Wappen).jpg, Alte Breslauer Burschenschaft der Raczeks
VZ-Heidelberg.jpg, Landsmannschaft Zaringia Heidelberg
Kneipe
More elaborate uniforms are usually worn at a ''Kneipe'' or, more formally, '' Commers'', a kind of gathering only still preserved at ''Studentenverbindungen''. Such events can happen regularly, but especially during holidays, for example to celebrate Christmas, to commemorate a deceased Verbindungs-brother (''Trauerkneipe''), or in remembrance of historic events or important dates in the fraternity's history, e.g. the founding day of the fraternity (''Stiftungstagskneipe''). During these gatherings, the crowd of members and guests present are presided over by the ''Chargierte'' (see above), with the ''Senior'' conducting the gathering, executing certain rituals, from as simple as welcoming guests, holding speeches to performing the so-called ''Landesvater'' ("father of the country"). The latter is a ceremonial where a sabre is pierced through the ''Couleur''-bearing headgear of the participants in a complex ritual, accompanied by a ceremonial chant. While such rituals are only performed on the most solemn of occasions and thus very rare, a ''Kneipe'' commonly involves the lighter sides of life, such as rampant beer consumption and uninhibited singing of traditional student songs, of which some can be bawdy for the standards of time.
History
Early history
When the first universities formed in Paris
Paris () is the Capital city, capital and List of communes in France with over 20,000 inhabitants, largest city of France. With an estimated population of 2,048,472 residents in January 2025 in an area of more than , Paris is the List of ci ...
, Bologna
Bologna ( , , ; ; ) is the capital and largest city of the Emilia-Romagna region in northern Italy. It is the List of cities in Italy, seventh most populous city in Italy, with about 400,000 inhabitants and 150 different nationalities. Its M ...
, and Salerno
Salerno (, ; ; ) is an ancient city and ''comune'' (municipality) in Campania, southwestern Italy, and is the capital of the namesake province, being the second largest city in the region by number of inhabitants, after Naples. It is located ...
around the 12th century, Europe was divided into a large number of small states, which reflected itself in the composition of the student body. To ensure an equal influence on the university's decisions, the students and teachers began to form '' nationes'', with one ''nation'' for each native state of its members. This basic tradition was continued for a long time and still survives in Sweden
Sweden, formally the Kingdom of Sweden, is a Nordic countries, Nordic country located on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. It borders Norway to the west and north, and Finland to the east. At , Sweden is the largest Nordic count ...
and Finland
Finland, officially the Republic of Finland, is a Nordic country in Northern Europe. It borders Sweden to the northwest, Norway to the north, and Russia to the east, with the Gulf of Bothnia to the west and the Gulf of Finland to the south, ...
to the present day.
When the first universities of the Holy Roman Empire
The Holy Roman Empire, also known as the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation after 1512, was a polity in Central and Western Europe, usually headed by the Holy Roman Emperor. It developed in the Early Middle Ages, and lasted for a millennium ...
were founded in Prague
Prague ( ; ) is the capital and List of cities and towns in the Czech Republic, largest city of the Czech Republic and the historical capital of Bohemia. Prague, located on the Vltava River, has a population of about 1.4 million, while its P ...
(1348), Vienna
Vienna ( ; ; ) is the capital city, capital, List of largest cities in Austria, most populous city, and one of Federal states of Austria, nine federal states of Austria. It is Austria's primate city, with just over two million inhabitants. ...
, and Heidelberg
Heidelberg (; ; ) is the List of cities in Baden-Württemberg by population, fifth-largest city in the States of Germany, German state of Baden-Württemberg, and with a population of about 163,000, of which roughly a quarter consists of studen ...
in the 14th century, they established a similar system, the '' Burse'' (From Latin "bursa" meaning "coin purse", from which ''Bursche'' stems, for the Burse's collective funds). Students were forced to live in a dorm assigned by their native state and soon started taking up formal signs, often colorful clothing, to display their membership in a ''Burse''. This continues in the colored sashes worn by modern ''Studentenverbindungen''. When the first duels were fought is not known exactly, because students were allowed to carry épée
The (, ; ), also rendered as epee in English, is the largest and heaviest of the three weapons used in the sport of fencing. The modern derives from the 19th-century , a weapon which itself derives from the French small sword. This contains a ...
s or sabers to be able to protect themselves and to deal with confrontations between rival groups (''Raufduell'').
In the 17th century, the respective sovereigns gained increasing control over "their" ''Burse'', and the first fraternities were formally formed, calling themselves ''Landsmannschaften'', giving themselves Latin names according to their country of origin (''Borussia'' for Prussia
Prussia (; ; Old Prussian: ''Prūsija'') was a Germans, German state centred on the North European Plain that originated from the 1525 secularization of the Prussia (region), Prussian part of the State of the Teutonic Order. For centuries, ...
, ''Guestphalia'' for Westphalia, etc.) and introducing ''Fuchs'' and ''Bursche'' as status designations. Lifelong membership, though, was not known. During this period, the regulated duel was developed, accompanied by the idea to defend one's honor with a weapon and a strict code to guide the confrontation. This potentially lethal tradition continued until 1933 in Germany, with being so strict at some points, that, e.g., a Prussian officer could be expelled if he was not willing to demand or give satisfaction.
As the ''Landsmannschaften'' faded during the early 1700s, secret organizations known as ''Studentenorden'' (student orders) took their place and introduced elaborate rituals, formal oaths of membership, a strict ''constitutio'' to regulate internal behavior, and cryptic symbols to identify members. All of these traditions are still known and actively practised in today's fraternities. The ''Studentenorden'', though, was heavily monitored by the then- absolutist government, as many of their traditions were derived from freemason or Illuminati lodges, and were subsequently banned in 1793.
Early 19th century
As the ''Studentenorden'' were dissolved and their former members sought a possibility to continue their traditions, they began rebuilding a similar form of community under the then-common and insuspicious French word "''Corps
Corps (; plural ''corps'' ; from French , from the Latin "body") is a term used for several different kinds of organization. A military innovation by Napoleon I, the formation was formally introduced March 1, 1800, when Napoleon ordered Gener ...
''". Symbols, oaths, regulations, and rituals were continued from the ''Studentenorden'' tradition (although the secrecy was omitted for longevity's sake), and the Latin names, status designations, and affiliation with a country of origin were copied from the now-extinct ''Landsmannschaften''.
A new characteristic was the heavy influence of German idealism
German idealism is a philosophical movement that emerged in Germany in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. It developed out of the work of Immanuel Kant in the 1780s and 1790s, and was closely linked both with Romanticism and the revolutionary ...
, in particular the works of Kant and Fichte. This resulted in a strong focus on forming young members to be strong, upright, and honorable, for the nation's "best and brightest" to spread these ideas throughout society. Political, especially geopolitical activities of ''Corps'' as a whole were actively discouraged, as social commitment was seen as more promising and less controversial. Another characteristic was to unify all of a city's, and ultimately all of Germany's, ''Corps'' under an umbrella organization and to vote on common rules and principles for each ''Corps'' to abide by. Hence, the KSCV was created in 1848. The oldest, still existing ''Studentenverbindung'', Corps Guestphalia Halle, established in 1789, was a founding member.
''Burschenschaft'' and rebellion against aristocracy
The ''Corps'' soon saw themselves heavily confronted by the ''Burschenschaft'', which was first founded in 1815. Sparked by the nationalist
Nationalism is an idea or movement that holds that the nation should be congruent with the State (polity), state. As a movement, it presupposes the existence and tends to promote the interests of a particular nation,Anthony D. Smith, Smith, A ...
sentiment after the Napoleonic Wars
{{Infobox military conflict
, conflict = Napoleonic Wars
, partof = the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars
, image = Napoleonic Wars (revision).jpg
, caption = Left to right, top to bottom:Battl ...
, the members of the latter perceived the traditional forms of fraternities, who were still heavily affiliated with their state of origin, to be reactionary
In politics, a reactionary is a person who favors a return to a previous state of society which they believe possessed positive characteristics absent from contemporary.''The New Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thought'' Third Edition, (1999) p. 729. ...
and elitist. Thus, they organized themselves into what was pictured as a single fraternity spanning all states of the German language, allowing the students to coordinate a nationalist revolution; i.e., a revolution to unify Germany and to abolish all princedoms. From the beginning, they were a dedicated political organization, in contrast to the ''Corps''.
This early attempt failed in 1819 when the ''Burschenschaft'' was fragmented, but the sentiment prevailed. At this occasion, the modern German colors are mentioned for the first time in popular culture, in the seventh verse of August Daniel von Binzer's song " Wir hatten gebauet ein stattliches Haus", citing the colors of the Burschenschaft:
Das Band ist zerschnitten,
war schwarz, rot und gold,
und Gott hat es gelitten,
wer weiß was er gewollt!
The ribbon is cut,
t'was black, red, and gold,
and God suffer'd it,
who knows what his intent!
Karlsbad Decrees
In the same year, due to general antisemitism prevalent in any social class, massive antisemitic protests, mainly fueled by students, craftsmen, and traders (see Hep-Hep riots) swept the German-speaking states, injuring and killing many. As a result, by the Karlsbad Decrees, any self-regulating student body was forcibly dissolved, punishments were instituted, and government authority was significantly increased.
This resulted in secret gatherings and smaller revolutionary acts, many of which are seen as the foundation for a German nation in today's world, such as the Hambach festival in 1832, where the German colors flew as a flag for the first time, and the Frankfurter Wachensturm
The Frankfurter Wachensturm (German: charge of the Frankfurt guard house) on 3 April 1833 was a failed attempt to start a revolution in Germany.
Events
About 50 students attacked the soldiers and policemen of the Frankfurt Police offices ''Haup ...
in 1833, a failed attempt to take a large city's treasury to fund a revolution.
Revolution of 1848 and subsequent diversification
Tensions started to build, with short-lived, illegal fraternities forming, being dissolved, and reforming at all universities, peaking in the German revolution of 1848 in which many members of ''Studentenverbindungen'' took part. Although the unification of Germany failed violently, the ''Studentenverbindungen'' emancipated themselves. Many of the members of the first Frankfurt parliament were in fact ''Corps'' students or ''Burschenschaft'' members.
Thus, the general concept flourished quickly, and soon, the ''Studentenverbindungen'' were no longer seen as clubs of young rowdies and revolutionaries, but as a valuable school for the future. This allowed ''Alte Herren'' to identify with the active members of their fraternities, and the idea of a lifelong commitment arose (''Lebensbundprinzip''). Soon, the first ''Stiftungsfeste'', annual festivities in celebration of the fraternity's founding, were celebrated, further cementing their standing. As increased liberty allowed it, a more regulated form of duel was conceived: The modern ''Mensur'', which strived to reduce lethality rates while still being able to fence. The former objective, though, was greatly impaired by treatment possibilities, with infected wounds posing a substantial risk.
During this time, the first Christian fraternities were established by religious students. Although some of them still took up weapons, many refused to do so from an ethical and religious standpoint. They often carried generic names, unifying themselves under an umbrella organization such as the oecumenical ''Wingolf'' (with ''Wingolf Bonn'' being the first in 1841).
When the Catholic religion was beginning to be repressed during the '' Kulturkampf'', a large number of fraternities of Catholic belief were formed as a reaction. The first organization of decidedly Catholic origin was the ''Schweizerische Studentenverein'' ("Swiss students' union") in 1841. These catholic fraternities understood themselves as an important network to counteract the ''Kulturkampf''.
In 1848, a Germany-wide association of Corps was founded in Bad Kösen, the so-called '' Kösener Senioren-Convents-Verband'', KSCV, (roughly, "the Kösen association of the committees of the first men in charge"). It consisted solely of the old ''Corps'' present at traditional liberal arts colleges and excluded those at technical colleges. In reaction, the '' Weinheimer Senioren Convent'', WSC, was established, which unified the latter. Today, the two umbrella organizations are tightly linked by a cooperation treaty, known as
Die Corps
'.
The types of fraternities soon diversified, and formerly informal clubs, such as sports clubs influenced by the political ideas of Turnvater Jahn (''Turnerschaften''), academic choirs (''Sängerschaften''), and groups influenced by the progressive movement (''Landsmannschaften'' after the 17th century organizations) were reorganized. Each with their namesake as their central principle and idea of character building. Landsmannschaft Sorabia-Westfalen Münster is the oldest ''Studentenverbindung'' of modern constitution. It was founded in 1716 in the City of Leipzig.
A notable exception from these self-centered principles is the VVDSt (''Verband der Vereine Deutscher Studenten'', "union of associations of German students"), which had a strict antisemitic policy and was formed in 1881 as a decidedly political group. As a reaction, the first Jewish fraternities were established in the 1880s, prevailing until the National Socialist regime. Theodor Herzl
Theodor Herzl (2 May 1860 – 3 July 1904) was an Austria-Hungary, Austro-Hungarian Jewish journalist and lawyer who was the father of Types of Zionism, modern political Zionism. Herzl formed the World Zionist Organization, Zionist Organizat ...
, the founder of zionism
Zionism is an Ethnic nationalism, ethnocultural nationalist movement that emerged in History of Europe#From revolution to imperialism (1789–1914), Europe in the late 19th century that aimed to establish and maintain a national home for the ...
and a former ''Burschenschaft'' student, was soon made an honorary member in many of these fraternities. Furthermore, Jewish fraternities were heavily focused on emancipating themselves through duel and '' Mensur.''
Finally, around the turn of the century, women were admitted to visit universities, unifying to sororities in 1899. The first such organization was the ''Club der Namenlosen'' ("club of the nameless"), which was soon renamed to ''Verein Studierender Frauen Deutschlands Hilaritas'' ("association of female students of Germany Hilaritas").
This diversification progressed to the point that the formerly despised students' culture heavily influenced society, especially affecting the language. During the Wilhelminian Era, this development peaked, with the largest part of the academic community (active or alumni) being member in one or more of the over 1300 fraternities and even non-members cutting themselves with razors to simulate the appearance of the characteristic fencing wounds. Bismarck and Kaiser Wilhelm II are the most well-known of ''Corps'' students and German fraternity students.
World War I, Weimar Republic, and National Socialist rule
This lasted until World War I, which called all students to serve their country. Wartime fatalities substantially reduced the number of fraternity members and students in general. The violence the students had experienced at war, the uncertainty of the Weimar Republic
The Weimar Republic, officially known as the German Reich, was the German Reich, German state from 1918 to 1933, during which it was a constitutional republic for the first time in history; hence it is also referred to, and unofficially proclai ...
times and the deeply felt humiliation of the harsh conditions of the Peace of Versailles caused many fraternity members to enlist in the newly founded Freikorps, paramilitary organizations thought to protect democracy. As open battles between ''Freikorps'' members and communist activists began, many quickly radicalized throughout society, resulting in formerly non-political fraternities developing an extreme nationalist, anti-communist, and antisemitic standpoint. As this was a fertile ground for the newly founded NSDAP to flourish on, many soon committed themselves to its principles, with some, such as the ''Burschenschaft'', expelling Jews as early as 1920.
When the NSDAP seized power in 1933, many rejoiced, although it was soon made clear that ''Studentenverbindungen'' would not be allowed to persist. There are several exceptions, though, most notably the ''Corps Saxo-Borussia'', whose members loudly discussed on different occasions if "the fuehrer were to eat his asparagus with his knife, his fork, or his paws", concluding that he had "so large a gab, he would be able to eat it crosswise".
This led to all ''Studentenverbindungen'' being classified as "reactionary", and most of them either dissolved themselves or were forcibly closed between 1934 and 1938. The former members were then reorganized in ''Kameradschaften'' ("comradeships") and forced to omit their principles of democratic vote, lifelong cooperation, honor, and tradition. In secrecy, though, many of the former customs were still practised, although with the outbreak of World War II, few remained to do so during the war.
Post-war times
After the war, the remaining former members soon tried to reorganize themselves, often fusing two or more ''Verbindungen'' to allow for greater impact, such as Guestphalia Bonn (West Germany) and Guestphalia Greifswald (East Germany). Although this was at first made illegal by the occupation forces and universities, they slowly gained a foothold in society again (see Corps Suevia). Special influences on this include several court decisions, amongst which are the decision that the ''Mensur'' does not violate moral code in 1951, that public display of fraternity colors can not be punished by expulsion from the university (1958, so called "Freiburg color dispute") and the forced acceptance of the last fencing fraternity in Berlin in 1968, and the formal obligation to head of state Theodor Heuss
Theodor Heuss (; 31 January 1884 – 12 December 1963) was a German liberal politician who served as the first president of West Germany from 1949 to 1959. His civil demeanour and his cordial nature – something of a contrast to German nati ...
to abolish duels for honor.
One side effect is that, due to this persistent struggle back to acceptance through legal action and sheer will of survival, post-war fraternities in Germany, unlike their pre-war selves, did not receive any university funding, but had also become completely free and independent of university regulation or oversight.
While this allowed for progress and such was achieved during the 1950s and early 1960s, the ''Verbindungen'' again took a hard hit in 1968 with the general socialist sentiment amongst the student movement and their desire to abolish anything deemed reactionary. Many of the prejudices then expressed still form the base of what little is known to the public about ''Verbindungen'', resulting in a slow and steady decline in membership count since. A notable upswing was only delivered by the recent Bologna process
file:Bologna-Prozess-Logo.svg, 96px, alt=Logo with stylized stars, Logo
file:Bologna zone.svg, alt=Map of Europe, encompassing the entire Bologna zone, 256px, Bologna zone
The Bologna Process is a series of ministerial meetings and agreements b ...
, depriving students of long-known means of studying and thus increasing the demand for assistance by experienced alumni.In 2013, less than one percent of German university students are active members of a ''Studentenverbindung''.
The most prosperous ''Studentenverbindungen'' can still be found in cities and towns with traditional liberal arts college
A liberal arts college or liberal arts institution of higher education is a college with an emphasis on Undergraduate education, undergraduate study in the Liberal arts education, liberal arts of humanities and science. Such colleges aim to impart ...
s and universities like Göttingen
Göttingen (, ; ; ) is a college town, university city in Lower Saxony, central Germany, the Capital (political), capital of Göttingen (district), the eponymous district. The River Leine runs through it. According to the 2022 German census, t ...
, Bonn
Bonn () is a federal city in the German state of North Rhine-Westphalia, located on the banks of the Rhine. With a population exceeding 300,000, it lies about south-southeast of Cologne, in the southernmost part of the Rhine-Ruhr region. This ...
, and Heidelberg
Heidelberg (; ; ) is the List of cities in Baden-Württemberg by population, fifth-largest city in the States of Germany, German state of Baden-Württemberg, and with a population of about 163,000, of which roughly a quarter consists of studen ...
in Germany, with Munich
Munich is the capital and most populous city of Bavaria, Germany. As of 30 November 2024, its population was 1,604,384, making it the third-largest city in Germany after Berlin and Hamburg. Munich is the largest city in Germany that is no ...
being an exception. Traditional structures have mostly been preserved, with rituals, codes of honor, symbols, and principles still intact. Most ''Studentenverbindungen'' still are restricted to only one gender, with the male varieties actively practising the ''Mensur''. However, many have formally repented for their presumed mistakes, with memorials of unjustly excluded Jews, for instance, being a common sight in a ''Verbindungshaus''.
Controversy
Numerous points of critique are usually discussed without result. The most common include accusations of nationalism
Nationalism is an idea or movement that holds that the nation should be congruent with the state. As a movement, it presupposes the existence and tends to promote the interests of a particular nation, Smith, Anthony. ''Nationalism: Theory, I ...
, racism
Racism is the belief that groups of humans possess different behavioral traits corresponding to inherited attributes and can be divided based on the superiority of one Race (human categorization), race or ethnicity over another. It may also me ...
, sexism
Sexism is prejudice or discrimination based on one's sex or gender. Sexism can affect anyone, but primarily affects women and girls. It has been linked to gender roles and stereotypes, and may include the belief that one sex or gender is int ...
, homophobia
Homophobia encompasses a range of negative attitudes and feelings toward homosexuality or people who identify or are perceived as being lesbian, Gay men, gay or bisexual. It has been defined as contempt, prejudice, aversion, hatred, or ant ...
, and elitism
Elitism is the notion that individuals who form an elite — a select group with desirable qualities such as intellect, wealth, power, physical attractiveness, notability, special skills, experience, lineage — are more likely to be construc ...
.
* Nationalism: Based on the historical background of many ''Verbindungen'', especially Burschenschaften, having either a strong link to a former principality or having displayed strong nationalism before these were abolished, the accusation of nationalism is the most frequent, to the harm of the other ''Verbindungen''.
* Racism: With long histories of German supremacy and antisemitism, today's ''Verbindungen'' are often said to be prone to structural racism. Supporters, on the other hand, often argue that the evidence is largely anecdotal. The ''Burschenschaft''s criterion of only admitting males "of German culture" often draws criticism, as well. However, the majority of ''Verbindungen'', especially Corps, define themselves as tolerant in general, regardless of race, ethnicity, or national origin.
* Sexism: As the majority of ''Studentenverbindungen'' are male-only, left-wing student organizations in particular often raise allegations of sexism. This is often combined with the accusation of being elitist, as it restricts women from making use of the same lucrative career networks as men. There is a long list of female-only ''Verbindungen'', with a historic background reaching back to 1898, whilst the oldest still active ''Verbindung'' was founded in 1976.
* Elitism: ''Alte Herren'' are said to take care of the students' careers, helping them in their subjects of study and other areas of life, up to organizing good jobs and opportunities after graduation. This networking is seen as problematic by other students and most students' union
A students' union or student union, is a student organization present in many colleges, universities, and high schools. In higher education, the students' union is often accorded its own building on the campus, dedicated to social, organizat ...
s. Today's fraternities dismiss this as a stereotype stemming from the Wilhelminian Era, when fraternities were much more common and a career was near-impossible without their help.
Apart from debate, these accusations have led to numerous acts of politically motivated violence, with over 100 cases in 2010 alone, ranging from simple vandalism such as destroying windows and spraying graffiti, through aggravated assault, to arson endangering fraternity members.
Common types
Despite a wide variety of ''Studentenverbindungen'', certain kinds are more common:
Symbols: wc=wearing couleur; nc=not wearing couleur in hat or ribbon; pF=practicing academic fencing; fo=academic fencing optional; nF=not practicing academic fencing
Uncommon, but influential, are the academical-technical engineering clubs ("Akademischer Verein") of the ''Hütte'' and ''Miltenberg-Wernigeroder Ring''; the "Hütte" is the publisher of one of the major engineering
Engineering is the practice of using natural science, mathematics, and the engineering design process to Problem solving#Engineering, solve problems within technology, increase efficiency and productivity, and improve Systems engineering, s ...
compendia in Germany.
See also
* Bund Chilenischer Burschenschaften
* Cartellverband
The Union of Catholic German Student Fraternities ( or , CV) is a German umbrella organization of Catholic male student fraternities ().
History
Foundation
During the period of 19th century in Germany called the , the Prussian state tried to ...
* Coburger Convent
* '' Kartellverband''
* Kösener Senioren-Convents-Verband
* Schweizerischer Studentenverein
* Weinheimer Senioren-Convent
Weinheimer Senioren-Convent (abbreviation: WSC) is the second oldest association of German Studentenverbindungen. It comprises 58 German Student Corps, German Student ''Corps'', all of which are based upon the principle of tolerance.
History
...
* Wingolf
References
Further reading
* U. Altermatt (ed.), ''Den Riesenkampf mit dieser Zeit zu wagen... Schweizerischer Studentenverein 1841-1991''. Maihof-Verlag, Luzern, 1993,
* Rolf-Joachim Baum (Hrsg.), "Wir wollen Männer, wir wollen Taten!" Deutsche Corpsstudenten 1848 bis heute, Siedler-Verlag, Berlin 1998,
*Martin Biastoch: Duell und Mensur im Kaiserreich (am Beispiel der Tübinger Corps Franconia, Rhenania, Suevia und Borussia zwischen 1871 und 1895). SH-Verlag, Vierow 1995,
*Martin Biastoch: Tübinger Studenten im Kaiserreich. Eine sozialgeschichtliche Untersuchung, Sigmaringen 1996 (Contubernium – Tübinger Beiträge zur Universitäts- und Wissenschaftsgeschichte vol. 44)
*Martin Biastoch: Die Corps im Kaiserreich – Idealbild einer Epoche?. In: "Wir wollen Männer, wir wollen Taten" – Deutsche Corpsstudenten 1848 bis heute, Rolf Joachim Baum (ed.), Siedler Verlag, Berlin 1998, pp. 111–132.
*Edwin A. Biedermann, "Logen, Clubs und Bruderschaften", Droste-Verlag, 2007, 2nd ed., , 415 pages
* Paulgerhard Gladen: ''Gaudeamus igitur - Die studentischen Verbindungen einst und jetzt'', Cologne 2001 (in German),
* Jonathan Green: ''Armed and Courteous'', ''Financial Times
The ''Financial Times'' (''FT'') is a British daily newspaper printed in broadsheet and also published digitally that focuses on business and economic Current affairs (news format), current affairs. Based in London, the paper is owned by a Jap ...
'', 3 January 2004, p. 16
online (JPG-Scans)
* Edgar Hunger / Curt Meyer: ''Studentisches Brauchtum'', Bonn, Stuttgart 1958 (German)
* Peter Krause: ''O alte Burschenherrlichkeit - Die Studenten und ihr Brauchtum'', 5th improved ed., Graz, Wien, Cologne 1997 (in German),
* Manfred Studier: ''Der Corpsstudent als Idealbild der Wilhelminischen Ära – Untersuchungen zum Zeitgeist 1888 bis 1914'', Abhandlungen zum Studenten- und Hochschulwesen, vol. 3, Schernfeld 1990,
* R. G. S. Weber: ''The German Corps in the Third Reich'' Macmillan London, German edition: ''Die Deutschen Corps im dritten Reich'' SH-Verlag
* Marc Zirlewagen (ed.): ''Wir siegen oder fallen - Deutsche Studenten im Ersten Weltkrieg'', Cologne 2008 (in German),
External links
Die Corps - KSCV and WSC
Coburger Convent
Cartellverband
Deutsche Burschenschaft
Neue Deutsche Burschenschaft
Schweizerischer Studentenverein
English website of Corps Borussia
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