Straumfjörð

Straumfjörð ( Icelandic), or Straumfjǫrð (Old Norse) sometimes anglicised to Straumsfjordr,''Sveinbjörn Þórðarsson''
The Saga of Erik the Red - Icelandic Saga Database
/ref> Straumfjordr, Straumsfjord or Straumfjord, is according to the Sagas of Icelanders a fjord in Vinland where Thorfinn Karlsefni set up a temporary settlement. It is described in the ''Saga of Erik the Red'', but not in the '' Greenland saga''. Its name translates to "Current-fjord", "Stream-fjord" or "Tide-fjord".

Two somewhat different versions of the travels of Karlsefni appear in the sagas; they are found in the ''Hauksbók'' and the ''Flateyjarbók''.The Vinland Problem through Four Centuries William Stetson Merrill The Catholic Historical Review
Vol. 21, No. 1 (Apr., 1935), pp. 21-48 Published by: Catholic University of America Press
Article Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/25013345 They tell that ''Straumsey'' (Current-isle) lies at the mouth of Straumfjörð; this is an island with an extreme density of birds.

The whereabouts of Straumfjörðcomplete with its associated island of ''Straumsey''has been, and is, subject to intense speculation, with at least 15 suggested locations on the Atlantic coast of North America. These possible locations range from as far north as the entrance to Northern Canada's Ungava Bay, to as far south as the entrance to New York state's Hudson River.

Location

The exact location of Straumfjörð is disputed. The only Norse settlement which has been recovered in North America beyond Greenland is located on L'Anse aux Meadows.

According to the ''Saga of Erik the Red'' the location is significantly south of Markland.

Directions

These directions to the fjord are based on Septhon's 1880 translation.

Thorfinn Karlsefni, trying to find a country visited by Leif Ericson, sailed from Brattahlíð, Eastern Settlement to ''Vestribygd'' (probably the Western Settlement), both in Greenland. From here, they moved on to "''Bjarneyjar''" ("Bear Islands", possibly Disko Island ("Country of Flat Stones"). After another two half-days or days of sail with northerly winds, they arrived at Markland ("Forest Country").

Off Markland to the southeast was an island that Karlsefni and his company called Bear Island. From Markland, after yet another two half-days or days of sail, they encountered a headland, possibly ''Kjalarnes''. Keeping the coast on their starboard side, they journeyed along '' Furdustrandir'' ("Wonder-strands"). Then, the coast became indented with creeks. They found grapes and wild wheat, and continued to where the shore was cut into by the fjord of ''Straumfjörð'', with the island of ''Straumsey'' ("Current-isle") at its mouth.

To the south of Straumfjörð was '' Hóp'', where no snow fell during winter, and on the west side of ''Kjalarnes'' was a wilderness, and a river which flowed from east to west. East of ''Kjalarnes'' was the " Irish Ocean". Straumfjörð is estimated by Karlsefni to be equidistant from ''Hóp'' and a location north of the river that runs westwards. He also regards ''Hóp'' and this location by the river to share the same mountain (or mountain range).

The "two half-days or days" wo ''doegr'', which could refer to 12 or 24 hours referenced three times in the saga, are important to the question of the whereabouts of Straumfjörð because they suggest the distance travelled when Karlsefni and his men, perhaps, crossed open seas. The two ''doegr'' were suggested by Carl Christian Rafn in 1841ANNALER FOR NORDISK OLDKYNDIGHED. 1840-1841. KONGELIGE NORDISKE OLDSKRIFTSELSKAB. Kjøbenhavn. Pages 15ff. Available through Google Books. to be equivalent to about 54 to 60 ''miil''. He bases this on old Icelandic sources such as the ''Landnámabók''. ''Miil'' would refer to either '' sjømil'' or to Scandinavian mile. William A. Munn (1929) assumes the two days to correspond to ''"about 200 miles"''. Jónas Kristjánsson and colleagues, in a 2012 article, suggest that ''170 nautical miles'', which is the distance between Greenland and Baffin Island, or an even longer distance, could well be transversed over two ''doegr'', as modern replicas of Norse ships have been reported to make 12 knots and more under favourable conditions. Geoffrey Malcolm Gathorne-Hardy and William Hovgaard estimated a day of 24 hours' sail at about 150 miles.

Saga of Erik the Red

According to the Saga of Erik the Red, Straumfjörð is located beyond the Wonderstrands (''Furðustrandir''). It describes the area thus, according to the "fusioned" 1880 translation by J. Sephton:

Later, after giving up settling farther south due to the presence of hostile ''Skrælings'', Karlsefni and his men again reach Straumfjörð when retreating northwards:

Hallmarks

If the saga's accounts and the translation are accurate, within Straumfjörð, there are mountains, the place was fair to look upon, with large pastures, a harsh winter, and hunting opportunities. A crag or crags are found within some distance. An unknown species of whale shored; it was inedible. On ''Straumsey'', there are so many birds that it is difficult not to step on eggs, it also has poor fishery, but gave good sustenance for their cattle. Fishery failed, but later recovered.

Currents

A defining feature of Straumfjörð and ''Straumsey'' must have been high tides or strong currents. The settlement which was established farther south, ''Hóp'' may also have been connected to strong currents or tides, as it has been translated into "tidal pool" or "tidal lake". According to a 2008 article by Thomas Hayne in the journal ''Weather'', this may give some clues as to the whereabouts of the fjord:Thomas Hayne, What did the Viking discoverers of America know of the North Atlantic Environment? Weather, Volume 63, Issue 3, pages 60–65, March 2008.

Climate

Theories on where Straumfjörð and the other places described in the saga were to a large extent based on the saga's descriptions of flora and fauna. The Northern Atlantic has since the saga was written, however, been through periods of natural changes in the regional climate and, more recently, global warming. This adds an extra layer of uncertainty to every climate-dependent observation.

Seamanship

Common sense seamanship implies to avoid open and treacherous seas unless they are unavoidable. Moreover, appropriate natural harbours would be required for the ships. This provides possible constraints to the routes taken.

Skepticism

Helge Ingstad and Anne Stine Ingstad (the couple who found L'Anse aux Meadows), in ''The Viking Discovery of America'', take a sceptical approach. They argue that

The similarities are also described by Mats G. Larsson. However, according to a 2012 article in ''Acta Archaeologica'', it is "now generally accepted" that the two sagas were written independently.

Fridtjof Nansen, in his ''I tåkeheimen'' (''In Northern Mists''), written before the discovery of L'Anse aux Meadows, conjectures that the Saga of Erik the Red was inspired by tales about the Fortunate Isles and, although admitting that it is indeed possible that the Norse reached America, considers the saga to not be trustworthy. Julius E. Olson of the University of Wisconsin strongly attacked this stance in a 1911 article (see also below), saying "If there isn't a substantial background of history to the Saga of Eric the Red, it is the most clever piece of literary deception over 'sic''">sic.html" ;"title="'sic">'sic''practiced in the name of history".

Suggested locations

The following suggestions for the location of Straumfjörð are gathered from both scholarly and popular literature. They are sorted by increasing distance from the Western Settlement, Greenland: they make increasingly optimistic estimates for the distance travelled by Karlsefni and his company. Evidently, the headland, promontory or cape ''Kjalarnes'' is difficult to identify; for seafarers the keel placed there would make its identification obvious, but it is now lost, and Furdustrandir and Straumfjörð lay beyond this point. As will be shown in the following, ''Kjalarnes'' is sometimes, but not always, identified as L'Anse aux Meadows, Gaspé Peninsula, Cape North (Nova Scotia), Cape North/Cape Breton Island and Cape Cod. Many, but not all, of the following suggestions can be placed some distance beyond these points, within four coastal regions: Newfoundland; Chaleur Bay; Nova Scotia/Maine; between Cape Cod and New York.

Ungava Bay

Hayne (2008) connects the extreme tides of Ungava Bay to the alleged currents or tides at Straumfjörð and ''Hóp'', without drawing any conclusions.

Sandwich Bay

William Hovgaard in ''The Voyages of the Norsemen to America'' (1914) takes into account the tales in the Greenland Saga. According to William Stetson Merrill, Hovgaard places Karlsefni's first winter at Sandwich Bay, Labrador. It is not made explicit whether this refers to Straumfjörð.

L'Anse aux Meadows

Birgitta Linderoth Wallace (2003) places the settlement at Straumfjörð at L'Anse aux Meadows.

Sop's Arm

Jónas Kristjánsson et al. (2012) assume that the headland of ''Kjalarnes'' referred to in the saga is at L'Anse aux Meadows, suggests that Straumfjörð refers to Sop's Arm, Newfoundland, as no other fjord in Newfoundland was found to have an island at its mouth, and as pitfall traps of possible Norse origin were found at this location.

St. Lawrence

In an 1831 letter sent from Copenhagen to the Massachusetts Historical Society, published in the 1880 ''Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society'', Rasmus Christian Rask gives a thorough account of the sagas and states,

This would refer, it would seem, either to the Gulf of Saint Lawrence or to lower Saint Lawrence River, depending on naming conventions in use at the time. He refuses to propose a theory of the whereabouts of ''Straumsey'', claiming it "impossible", but hopes for future saga translations to illuminate the issue.

H. P. Steensby ( da) held that ''"The coast lines were guides for the ancient Norsemen and they must also be ours"''. According to Merrill, Steensby's opinion was that

Baie des Sept-Îles

'' Cappelen's History of Norway'' (1976) suggests a location at Baie des Sept-Îles, Quebec.

Chaleur Bay

An early 1920s book review by Sigfús Blöndal in Historisk Tidsskrift (Denmark), referring to scholarly consensus of the past decades and to the authority of Gustav Storm and H. P. Steensby, places Straumfjörð at Chaleur Bay, which separates Gaspé Peninsula from New Brunswick.

Halldór Hermansson (1930) also placed Straumfjörð in Chaleur Bay, "where the tide rises from five to ten feet". Matthias Thordarsson, who authored ''The Vinland Voyages'' (1930), agreed with his views.

Mira Bay

Juul Dieserud (1935) placed Straumfjörð at Mira Bay, Nova Scotia.

Strait of Canso

Geraldine Barnes (1995) connects Straumfjörð to the Strait of Canso between Cape Breton Island and mainland Nova Scotia, due to its high tides and the birdlife at nearby Isle Madame.

According to a 1935 article by William Stetson Merrill in ''The Catholic Historical Review'', the opinion held by Gustav Storm was as follows:

Lobster Bay

While (1992, 1999, 2000) considers the Strait of Canso a candidate due to its strong currents, but notes that the currents do not extend to islands. Therefore, he considers Lobster Bay, off the southwestern tip of Nova Scotia's Municipality of the District of Argyle, a better candidate. He writes that Samuel de Champlain named this bay "Baye courante ('Stream Bay'), i.e. the same name as the Norse one". Larsson further observes,

Bay of Fundy

The Bay of Fundy, between New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, has the highest tidal range in the world, with a maximum of and a mean of . In addition, because of tidal resonance in the funnel-shaped bay, the tides that flow through the channel are very powerful, so the bay's criteria serve both the "Current-fjord" and "Tide-fjord" translations of Straumfjörð. Julius E. Olson (1911) pointed out that Fridtjof Nansen, taking a very sceptical stance, was dismissive of the idea of Vinland being located at Nova Scotia, partly because he held that the birdlife there would not match the extreme abundance which the saga describes on ''Straumsey''. Olson points, however, to the Bay of Fundy and the isle of Grand Manan, and quotes Samuel de Champlain's observation of birds on islands by the Nova Scotia coast (in ''Original Narratives''):

William Henry Babcock (1935) placed Straumfjörð on the firth leading into Passamaquoddy Bay, referring to the tides around the Bay of Fundy, and also places ''Straumsey'' at Grand Manan Island.

The Bay of Fundy was also mentioned in a 2008 article in ''Weather'', but without any conclusions being drawn.

Environs of Mount Desert Island

William L. Traxel, in his explorative 2004 book ''Footprints of the Welsh Indians: Settlers in North America Before 1492'' connects ''Straumsey'' to Mount Desert Island in Acadia National Park, Maine, United States, and consequently Straumfjörð with one of the nearby inlets:

He bases this on an identification of Cape Breton Island as ''Kjalarnes'' north of Straumfjörð, and on three candidate locations of ''Hóp'' to the south. Traxel refers to a number of archeological findings by Frederick J. Pohl at Follins Pond, and connects these to the settlement of ''Hóp''. He also reports that Robert Ellis Cahill found a Norse longhouse near Buzzard's Bay He also holds Pettaquamscutt River, Rhode Island as a candidate for the location of ''Hóp''.

Bass River, Cape Cod

Buzzards Bay

According to the 1880 Sephton translation of the saga, Carl Christian Rafn and other Danish scholars placed ''Kjalarnes'' at Cape Cod, Straumfjörð at Buzzards Bay, Massachusetts and ''Straumsey'' at Martha's Vineyard.

Rafn suggests these views in a comprehensive treatment in the 1840-1841 '' Annals for Nordic Ancient Knowledge'', observing that the interference of the Gulf Stream by Barnstable would give significant currents in this area. He further identifies Hóp as Mount Hope Bay, Rhode Island, suggesting that the Norse language name may have survived through "the Indians' Mont-Haup". He also mentions a nearby Egg Island as a candidate for ''Straumsey''.

The suggested connection to Buzzard's Bay is reiterated by Benjamin Franklin DeCosta in ''The Pre-Columbian Discovery of America by the Northmen'' (3rd ed., 1901)

The methodology of the account of Edward F. Gray, author of ''Leif Eriksson: Discoverer of America'' (1930), appears to be particularly favoured in the 1935 review article by William Stetson Merrill. Considering all Vinland sagas as a whole, Gray suggested that it was not Karlsefni, but Leif Ericson who reached Straumfjörð. The currents of Straumfjörð, Gray holds, relates to the currents of Nantucket Sound, and he proceeded past Martha's Vineyard to build his Leifsbudir at Menemsha Pond.

Long Island Sound

Geoffrey Malcolm Gathorne-Hardy (1921) argued that Straumfjörð is identical with Long Island Sound, with ''Straumsey'' "at its eastern extremity", i.e. at Fisher's Island. To put this in context, he held Helluland to refer to Labrador and Newfoundland, Markland to refer to Nova Scotia, ''Kjalarnes'' to be at Cape Cod.

This contradicted earlier estimates. William Paton Ker, in a 1922 book review published in ''The English Historical Review'' favoured this view before that of Gustav Storm, who placed Vinland in Nova Scotia.

Hudson River

According to a 1963 article in ''Sunnudagsblaðið'', Charles Michael Boland, the author of the 1961 book ''They All Discovered America'' which suggests widespread pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact, held Straumfjörð to be the Hudson River and ''Straumsey'' to be Governors Island.

A December 1965 article in ''Folk og Land'' suggests that the Hudson River is Straumfjörð, and that Manhattan Island is ''Straumsey''.SNO
/ref> Reasons provided are that the name seems apt, that there were excellent natural harbours in this area, such as in the East River and New York Harbor, that this location would be a good base for further exploration, that it is a land of plenty, that the winters on Manhattan Island are relatively cold, and that cliffs, described in the saga, can be found by the Harlem River.

References

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Vinland
Sagas of Icelanders