A Stradivarius is one of the

string instrument In musical instrument classification, string instruments, or chordophones, are musical instruments that produce sound from vibrating strings when a performer strums, plucks, strikes or sounds the strings in varying manners. Musicians play some ...

s, such as violins, violas,

cellos The violoncello ( , ), commonly abbreviated as cello ( ), is a middle pitched bowed (sometimes plucked and occasionally hit) string instrument of the violin family. Its four strings are usually tuned in perfect fifths: from low to high, ...

, and

guitar The guitar is a stringed musical instrument that is usually fretted (with Fretless guitar, some exceptions) and typically has six or Twelve-string guitar, twelve strings. It is usually held flat against the player's body and played by strumming ...

s, crafted by members of the Stradivari family, particularly Antonio Stradivari (

Latin Latin ( or ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken by the Latins (Italic tribe), Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio), the lower Tiber area aroun ...

: Antonius Stradivarius), in

Cremona Cremona ( , , ; ; ) is a city and (municipality) in northern Italy, situated in Lombardy, on the left bank of the Po (river), Po river in the middle of the Po Valley. It is the capital of the province of Cremona and the seat of the local city a ...

, Italy, during the late 17th and early 18th centuries. These instruments are known for their craftsmanship, tonal quality, and lasting legacy, and are considered some of the finest ever made. Stradivari's violins, in particular, are coveted by musicians and collectors, with many selling for millions of dollars. Antonio Stradivari made over 1,100 instruments, with approximately 650 surviving today. The exact methods Stradivari used to produce the instruments' famed sound remain unknown, with theories ranging from the unique quality of the wood used during the

Little Ice Age The Little Ice Age (LIA) was a period of regional cooling, particularly pronounced in the North Atlantic region. It was not a true ice age of global extent. The term was introduced into scientific literature by François E. Matthes in 1939. Mat ...

to the varnishes and chemical treatments applied. Despite extensive scientific research, including modern acoustic analysis and

CT scan A computed tomography scan (CT scan), formerly called computed axial tomography scan (CAT scan), is a medical imaging technique used to obtain detailed internal images of the body. The personnel that perform CT scans are called radiographers or ...

s, no one has been able to conclusively replicate or fully explain the tonal qualities of Stradivarius instruments. The reputation of Stradivarius instruments for having unmatched sound quality has been debated. Blind experiments conducted from the 19th century to the present have often found no significant difference between Stradivari violins and high-quality modern violins. These findings have led some to question the objectivity of the instruments' legendary status. Stradivarius instruments are still played by leading musicians and housed in museums worldwide, such as the '' Museo del Violino'' in Cremona, which preserves several Stradivarius instruments. Initiatives like the ''Stradivarius Sound Bank'' have aimed to digitally capture and preserve the sounds of these instruments for future generations. Stradivarius instruments have become known in popular culture, appearing in fiction and representing elite musical artistry.

Construction

Stradivari made his instruments using an inner form, unlike the French copyists, such as Vuillaume, who employed an outer form. It is clear from the number of forms throughout his career that he experimented with some of the dimensions of his instruments. The woods used included

spruce A spruce is a tree of the genus ''Picea'' ( ), a genus of about 40 species of coniferous evergreen trees in the family Pinaceae, found in the northern temperate and boreal ecosystem, boreal (taiga) regions of the Northern hemisphere. ''Picea'' ...

for the top,

willow Willows, also called sallows and osiers, of the genus ''Salix'', comprise around 350 species (plus numerous hybrids) of typically deciduous trees and shrubs, found primarily on moist soils in cold and temperate regions. Most species are known ...

for the internal blocks and linings, and

maple ''Acer'' is a genus of trees and shrubs commonly known as maples. The genus is placed in the soapberry family Sapindaceae.Stevens, P. F. (2001 onwards). Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. Version 9, June 2008 nd more or less continuously updated si ...

for the back, ribs, and neck. Stradivari's sound is described as "direct and precise", responding to the slightest touch with refined direction and elegance. There has been conjecture that the wood used may have been treated with several types of minerals, both before and after construction of a violin. Scientists at

National Taiwan University National Taiwan University (NTU; zh, t=國立臺灣大學, poj=Kok-li̍p Tâi-oân Tāi-ha̍k, p=, s=) is a National university, national Public university, public research university in Taipei, Taiwan. Founded in 1928 during Taiwan under J ...

have detected trace amounts of

aluminum Aluminium (or aluminum in North American English) is a chemical element; it has chemical symbol, symbol Al and atomic number 13. It has a density lower than that of other common metals, about one-third that of steel. Aluminium has ...

copper Copper is a chemical element; it has symbol Cu (from Latin ) and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of pure copper has a pinkish-orang ...

, and

calcium Calcium is a chemical element; it has symbol Ca and atomic number 20. As an alkaline earth metal, calcium is a reactive metal that forms a dark oxide-nitride layer when exposed to air. Its physical and chemical properties are most similar to it ...

in wood from Stradivari violins. The traces may have come from chemical preservatives applied by loggers to the wood they sold. As well, the violin makers applied varnishes to their instruments. Potassium borate ( borax) may have been used to protect against

woodworm A woodworm is the Xylophagy, wood-eating larva of many species of beetle. It is also a generic description given to the infestation of a wooden item (normally part of a dwelling or the furniture in it) by these larvae. Types of woodworm Woodbo ...

. Sodium and potassium silicate may have been used to prevent mildew, rotting and insect damage. Simone Fernando Sacconi suggested that Vernice bianca, an egg tempera varnish composed of gum arabic,

honey Honey is a sweet and viscous substance made by several species of bees, the best-known of which are honey bees. Honey is made and stored to nourish bee colonies. Bees produce honey by gathering and then refining the sugary secretions of pl ...

, and

egg white Egg white is the clear liquid (also called the albumen or the glair/glaire) contained within an egg. In chickens, it is formed from the layers of secretions of the anterior section of the hen's oviduct during the passage of the egg. It forms a ...

, may have been used. French chemist Jean-Philippe Echard and his co-workers have studied varnishes on Stradivarius violins. He reported in 2010 that even when varnish is no longer visible to the human eye on the surface of older violins, it can be detected within the top layers of cells. A lower layer of varnish is found within the topmost wood cells while an upper rests upon the wood. Echard's findings suggest that Stradivari used a mixture of common Cremonese resin, oil, and pigment as a varnish, rather than making his own. Echard did not find traces of specialized ingredients such as protein materials, gums, or fossil amber. A comparative study published in PLOS One in 2008 found no significant differences in median densities between modern and classical violins, or between classical violins from different origins; instead the survey of several modern and classical examples of violins highlighted a notable distinction when comparing density differentials. These results suggest that differences in density differentials in the material may have played a significant role in the sound production of classical violins. A later survey, focused on comparing median densities in both classical and modern violin examples, questioned the role available materials may have played in sound production differences, though it made no comment on variations in density differentials. The content of copper and aluminium is higher than current instruments.

Market value

A Stradivarius made in the 1680s, or during Stradivari's "Long Pattern" period from 1690 to 1700, could be worth hundreds of thousands to several million U.S. dollars at today's prices. The 1697 " Molitor" Stradivarius, once rumored to have belonged to

Napoleon Napoleon Bonaparte (born Napoleone di Buonaparte; 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821), later known by his regnal name Napoleon I, was a French general and statesman who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and led Military career ...

(it actually belonged to a general in his army,

Marshal Marshal is a term used in several official titles in various branches of society. As marshals became trusted members of the courts of Middle Ages, Medieval Europe, the title grew in reputation. During the last few centuries, it has been used fo ...

Gabriel Jean Joseph Molitor, 1er Comte Molitor), sold in 2010 at Tarisio Auctions to violinist Anne Akiko Meyers for $3,600,000, at the time a world record. Depending on condition, instruments made during Stradivari's "golden period" from 1700 to about 1725 can be worth millions of dollars. In 2011, his "Lady Blunt" violin from 1721, which is in pristine condition, was sold in London for $15.9 million (it is named after

Lord Byron George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron (22 January 1788 – 19 April 1824) was an English poet. He is one of the major figures of the Romantic movement, and is regarded as being among the greatest poets of the United Kingdom. Among his best-kno ...

's granddaughter Lady Anne Blunt, who owned it for 30 years). It was sold by the Nippon Music Foundation in aid of the Japanese earthquake and tsunami appeal. In Spring 2014 the "Macdonald" viola was put up for auction through the musical instrument auction house Ingles & Hayday in conjunction with

Sotheby's Sotheby's ( ) is a British-founded multinational corporation with headquarters in New York City. It is one of the world's largest brokers of fine art, fine and decorative art, jewellery, and collectibles. It has 80 locations in 40 countries, an ...

via silent auction with a minimum bid of $45 million. The auction failed to reach its minimum bid by 25 June 2014, and the viola was not sold. ''Vice'' magazine reported in May 2013 that "in recent years, Stradivarius

investment fund An investment fund is a way of investment, investing money alongside other investors in order to benefit from the inherent advantages of working as part of a group such as reducing the risks of the investment by a significant percentage. These ad ...

s have started to appear, pushing already astronomical prices even higher". Stradivarius instruments are at risk of theft. Stolen instruments are often recovered, even after being missing for many years. They are difficult to sell illicitly, as dealers will typically call the police if approached by a seller with a Stradivarius known to have been stolen. The '' General Kyd Stradivarius'' was stolen in 2004. It was returned three weeks later by a woman who found it and handed it over to the police. The ''Sinsheimer/Iselin'' was stolen in Hanover, Germany in 2008 and recovered in 2009. The '' Lipinski Stradivarius'' was stolen in an armed robbery on 27 January 2014 and subsequently recovered. The '' Ames Stradivarius'' was stolen in 1981 and recovered in 2015. A number of stolen instruments remain missing, such as the ''Karpilowsky'', stolen in 1953; the ''Davidoff-Morini'', stolen in 1995; and the ''Le Maurien'', stolen in 2002.

Comparisons in sound quality

The Stradivarius instruments are famous for the quality of sound they produce. However, the many blind experiments from 1817A guitar-like violin made by the naval engineer François Chanot, a member of a family of

luthier A luthier ( ; ) is a craftsperson who builds or repairs string instruments. Etymology The word ' is originally French and comes from ''luth'', the French word for "lute". The term was originally used for makers of lutes, but it came to be ...

s. A committee of scientists and musicians, listening to the violins played in an adjacent room, judged Chanot's violin to be at least as good as the Stradivarius, but apparently Chanot's instruments quickly lost their good qualities. to as recent as 2014 have never found any difference in sound between Stradivari's violins and high-quality violins in comparable style of other makers and periods, nor has acoustic analysis. In a particularly famous test on a

BBC Radio 3 BBC Radio 3 is a British national radio station owned and operated by the BBC. It replaced the BBC Third Programme in 1967 and broadcasts classical music and opera, with jazz, world music, Radio drama, drama, High culture, culture and the arts ...

programme in 1977, the violinists

Isaac Stern Isaac Stern (July 21, 1920 – September 22, 2001) was an American violinist. Born in Ukraine, Stern moved to the United States when he was 14 months old. Stern performed both nationally and internationally, notably touring the Soviet Union a ...

and Pinchas Zukerman and the violin expert and dealer Charles Beare tried to distinguish between the "Chaconne" Stradivarius, a 1739 Guarneri del Gesú, an 1846 Vuillaume, and a 1976 British violin played behind a screen by a professional soloist. The two violinists were allowed to play all the instruments first. None of the listeners identified more than two of the four instruments. Two of the listeners identified the 20th-century violin as the Stradivarius. Violinists and others have criticized these tests on various grounds such as that they are not

double-blind In a blind or blinded experiment, information which may influence the participants of the experiment is withheld until after the experiment is complete. Good blinding can reduce or eliminate experimental biases that arise from a participants' expec ...

(in most cases), the judges are often not experts, and the sounds of violins are hard to evaluate objectively and reproducibly. In a test in 2009, the British violinist Matthew Trusler played his 1711 Stradivarius, said to be worth two million U.S. dollars, and four modern violins made by the Swiss violin-maker . One of Rhonheimer's violins, made with wood that the Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology researcher Francis Schwarze had treated with fungi, received 90 of the 180 votes for the best tone, while the Stradivarius came second with 39 votes. The majority (113) of the listeners misidentified the winning violin as the Stradivarius. Analysis of the treated wood revealed a reduction in density, accompanied by relatively little change in the speed of sound. According to this analysis, treatment improves the sound radiation ratio to the level of cold-climate wood considered to have superior resonance. In a double-blind test in 2012 published in the study " Player preferences among new and old violins", expert players could not distinguish old from new instruments by playing them for a short time in a small room. In an additional test, performed in a concert hall, one of the Stradivarius violins placed first, but one of the participants stated that "the audience in the concert hall were essentially equivocal on which instruments were better in each of the pair-wise instrument comparisons" and "I could tell slight differences in the instruments... but overall they were all great. None of them sounded substantially weaker than the others." Modern violins were rated as having better sound-carrying qualities and were preferred again in a study in 2017. While many world-class soloists play violins by Antonio Stradivari, there are notable exceptions. For example, Christian Tetzlaff formerly played "a quite famous Strad", but switched to a violin made in 2002 by Stefan-Peter Greiner. He states that the listener cannot tell that his instrument is modern, and he regards it as excellent for Bach and better than a Stradivarius for "the big Romantic and 20th-century

concerto A concerto (; plural ''concertos'', or ''concerti'' from the Italian plural) is, from the late Baroque era, mostly understood as an instrumental composition, written for one or more soloists accompanied by an orchestra or other ensemble. The ...

s."

Theories and reproduction attempts

Some maintain that the very best Stradivari have unique superiorities. Various attempts at explaining these supposed qualities have been undertaken, most results being unsuccessful or inconclusive. Over the centuries, numerous theories have been presented—and debunked—including an assertion that the wood was salvaged from old cathedrals. A more modern theory attributes tree growth during a time of global low temperatures during the

associated with unusually low solar activity of the Maunder Minimum, circa 1645 to 1750, during which cooler temperatures throughout Europe are believed to have caused stunted and slowed tree growth, resulting in unusually dense wood. Further evidence for this "Little Ice Age theory" comes from a simple examination of the dense growth rings in the wood used in Stradivari's instruments. Two researchers—University of Tennessee tree-ring scientist Henri Grissino-Mayer and Lloyd Burckle, a Columbia University climatologist—published their conclusions supporting the theory on increased wood density in the journal '' Dendrochronologia''. In 2008, researchers from the Leiden University Medical Center in the Netherlands, announced further evidence that wood density caused the claimed high quality of these instruments. After examining the violins with

X-ray An X-ray (also known in many languages as Röntgen radiation) is a form of high-energy electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength shorter than those of ultraviolet rays and longer than those of gamma rays. Roughly, X-rays have a wavelength ran ...

s, the researchers found that these violins all have extremely consistent density, with relatively low variation in the apparent growth patterns of the trees that produced this wood. Yet another possible explanation is that the

wood used was sourced from the forests of northern

Croatia Croatia, officially the Republic of Croatia, is a country in Central Europe, Central and Southeast Europe, on the coast of the Adriatic Sea. It borders Slovenia to the northwest, Hungary to the northeast, Serbia to the east, Bosnia and Herze ...

. This wood is known for its extreme density resulting from the slow growth caused by harsh Croatian winters. Croatian wood was traded by Venetian merchants of the era, and is still used today by local

s and craftsfolk for musical instruments. Some research points to wood preservatives used in that day as contributing to the resonant qualities. Joseph Nagyvary reveals that he has always held the belief that there are a wide range of chemicals that will improve the violin's sound. In a 2009 study co-authored with Renald Guillemette and Clifford Spiegelman, Nagyvary obtained shavings from a Stradivarius violin and examined them, and analysis indicated they contained " borax,

fluoride Fluoride (). According to this source, is a possible pronunciation in British English. is an Inorganic chemistry, inorganic, Monatomic ion, monatomic Ion#Anions and cations, anion of fluorine, with the chemical formula (also written ), whose ...

chromium Chromium is a chemical element; it has Symbol (chemistry), symbol Cr and atomic number 24. It is the first element in Group 6 element, group 6. It is a steely-grey, Luster (mineralogy), lustrous, hard, and brittle transition metal. Chromium ...

and iron salts." He also found that the wood had decayed a little, to the extent that the filter plates in the pores between the wood's component

tracheid A tracheid is a long and tapered Lignin, lignified cell in the xylem of Tracheophyta, vascular plants. It is a type of conductive cell called a tracheary element. Angiosperms also use another type of conductive cell, called vessel elements, to t ...

s had rotted away, perhaps while the wood was stored in or under water in the

Venice Venice ( ; ; , formerly ) is a city in northeastern Italy and the capital of the Veneto Regions of Italy, region. It is built on a group of 118 islands that are separated by expanses of open water and by canals; portions of the city are li ...

lagoon before Stradivarius used it. Steven Sirr, a radiologist, worked with researchers to perform a CT scan of a Stradivari known as the " Betts". Data regarding the differing densities of woods used were then used to create a reproduction instrument.

Instruments

Stradivari made mainly violins but also violas, cellos and some plucked string instruments (five guitars, two mandolins and one harp are known). About 650 original Stradivarius instruments have survived. Thousands of violins have been made in tribute to Stradivari, copying his model and bearing labels that read "Stradivarius". The presence of a Stradivarius label does not confirm that the instrument is a genuine work of Stradivari. Recordings made with original Stradivarius string instruments * Fabio Biondi, Antonio Fantinuoli, Giangiacomo Pinardi, Paola Poncet. Francesco Maria Veracini, Francesco Geminiani, Arangelo Corelli, Giuseppe Tartini, Pietro Antonio Locatelli, Antonio Vivaldi. ''The 1690 'Tuscan' Stradivari''. Label: Glossa * L'Archibudelli. Franz Schubert. ''Quintet in C D. 956, Rondo in A D. 438''. Label: Sony * L'Archibudelli, Smithsonian Chamber Players. George Onslow. ''Quintets Opp. 38, 39 & 40''. Label: Sony * L'Archibudelli, Smithsonian Chamber Players. Felix Mendelssohn, Niels Gade. ''Octets for Strings''. Label: Sony * Frank Peter Zimmermann, Antoine Tamestit, Christian Poltéra. Ludwig van Beethoven. ''String Trios, Op. 9''. Label: BIS * Ralph Holmes, Richard Burnett. Johann Nepomuk Hummel. ''Works for Violin and Piano''. Label: Amon-Ra * Paolo Ghidoni, Alfredo Zamarra. Luigi Gatti. ''Six Sonatas for Violin & Viola''. Label: Brilliant Classics * Steven Isserlis, Robert Levin. Ludwig van Beethoven. ''Cello Sonatas''. Label: Hyperion * Rainer Kussmaul, Andreas Staier, Concerto Köln. Felix Mendelssohn. P''iano Concerto in A minor, Concerto for Piano and Violin in D minor''. Label: Teldec * Isabelle Faust, Pavlo Beznosiuk, Orchestra of the Age of Enlightenment. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Joseph Haydn. ''Sinfonia Concertante; Violin Concerti 1 & 4''. Label: Channel Classics * Isabelle Faust, Anne Katharina Schreiber, Antoine Tamestit, Jean-Guihen Queyras, Alexander Melnikov. Robert Schumann. ''Piano Quartet & Quintet''. Label: Harmonia Mundi * Isabelle Faust, Alexander Melnikov, Boris Faust, Wolfgang Emanuel Schmidt. Carl Maria von Weber. ''Sonatas for violin and piano, Piano Quartet''. Label: Harmonia Mundi * Isabelle Faust, Alexander Melnikov, Teunis van der Zwart. Johannes Brahms. ''Horn Trio Op. 40, Violin Sonata Op. 78, Fantasies Op. 116''. Label: Harmonia Mundi * Isabelle Faust, Alexander Melnikov. Albert Dietrich, Robert Schumann, Johannes Brahms. ''Violin Sonatas Op. 100 & 108''. Label: Harmonia Mundi * Alexander Melnikov, Isabelle Faust, Salagon Quartet. Franck, Chausson. Label: Harmonia Mundi, 2017. * Gudrun Schaumann, Wolfgang Brunner. Clara Schumann, Albert Dietrich, Robert Schumann, Johannes Brahms, Carl Reinecke, Theodor Kirchner, Woldemar Bargiel, Joseph Joachim. ''The Circle of Robert Schumann''. Label: Capriccio * Antti Tikkanen, Markus Hohti, Joonas Ahonen (Rödberg Trio). Fanny Mendelssohn, Felix Mendelssohn. ''The Mendelssohn Siblings''. Label: Alba Records * Anne-Sophie Mutter, Across the Stars, Various works by

John Williams John Towner Williams (born February 8, 1932)Nylund, Rob (November 15, 2022)Classic Connection review, ''WBOI'' ("For the second time this year, the Fort Wayne Philharmonic honored American composer, conductor, and arranger John Williams, who w ...

. Label: Deutsche-Grammophon * Anne Sofie von Otter, Melvyn Tan, Erich Hoeprich, Nils-Erik Sparf, Christina Högman, Christina Högman. Ludwig van Beethoven, Giacomo Meyerbeer, Louis Spohr. ''Lieder, Mélodies''. Label: Archiv Produktion * Janine Jansen, Antonio Pappano. 12 Stradivari, Various works by Falla, Suk, C. Schumann, Schumann, Vieuxtemps, Tchaikovsky, Szymanowski, Ravel, Elgar, Rachmaninoff, Heuberger, Kreisler, Kern on 12 different Stradivari brought together. Label: Decca 4851605 (2021) Recordings made with replicas of Stradivarius string instruments * Roel Dieltiens, Andreas Staier. Ludwig van Beethoven. ''Cello Sonatas & Bagatelles: Opp. 102, 119 and 126''. Label: Harmonia Mundi. Cello by Marten Cornelissen (1994). * Jaroslaw Thiel, Katarzyna Drogosz. Ludwig van Beethoven. ''Sonatas Op. 5, Variations WoO 45''. Label: Narodowe Forum Muzyki. Cello by Bastian Muthesius (2004).

Sound preservation

The Museo del Violino in

, Italy embarked on a project to preserve the sound of Stradivarius instruments. In January 2019, four musicians recorded scales and arpeggios using two violins, a viola, and a cello, including a famous 1727 violin named "Vesuvio." These recordings, known as the "Stradivarius Sound Bank," preserve the sounds. The project involved closing off streets and minimizing noise to ensure a quiet environment during the recordings. The musicians recorded over one million sound files across different techniques to capture the instruments' tonal characteristics. These recordings are stored as part of a permanent collection at the Museo del Violino. Fausto Cacciatori, curator of the museum, emphasized that while the sounds of these instruments change over time due to natural aging, the project will allow future generations to experience the original sound of these Stradivarius instruments.

References

External links

A FourDoc (short on-line documentary) about a group of violin makers making a violin in the original spec of the maurin Stradivarius in just five days

Cozio.com
Online database of instruments by Antonio Stradivari.
Instruments by Antonio Stradivari on the MIMO online database
{{Violin family String instruments Stradivari instruments Lost inventions

Construction

Market value

Comparisons in sound quality

Theories and reproduction attempts

Instruments

Sound preservation

See also

References

Further reading

External links