Stećak Forms
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Stećak forms, that is, shapes and dimensions of the megalithic tombstone known as
stećak Stećak (plural stećci; Cyrillic стећак, стећци) is the name for monumental medieval tombstones, that lie scattered across Bosnia and Herzegovina, and the border parts of Croatia, Montenegro and Serbia. An estimated 60,000 are found w ...
, is what make stećaks extremely attractive. Stećaks are mostly of large dimension and in rare cases smaller ones were cut. However, the very basic division of stećak is between lying or horizontal and standing or vertical ones, which was introduced by Dimitrije Sergejevski in 1952. The first group includes stećci in the form of a ''slab'', a ''chest'' (or ''box''), a ''chest'' with a ''pedestal'', a ''gable'' and a ''gable'' with a ''pedestal'', while the second group includes stećci with two forms - ''columns'' and ''crosses''. In addition to these basic forms, which have several subtypes and variants, there are also ''amorphous'' stećci, which are simplest ones and usually without any elaborate finishing decorations or inscriptions. Stećci are found in territories ruled by the
Bosnian medieval state The history of Bosnia and Herzegovina in the Middle Ages refers to the time period between the Roman era and the 15th-century Ottoman conquest. The Early Middle Ages in the Western Balkans saw the region reconquered from barbarians (Ostrogot ...
throughout the
Middle Ages In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the 5th to the late 15th centuries, similarly to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and ...
, which today corresponds with a territory that cover most of
Bosnia and Herzegovina Bosnia and Herzegovina, sometimes known as Bosnia-Herzegovina and informally as Bosnia, is a country in Southeast Europe. Situated on the Balkans, Balkan Peninsula, it borders Serbia to the east, Montenegro to the southeast, and Croatia to th ...
, and a borderlands of
Serbia , image_flag = Flag of Serbia.svg , national_motto = , image_coat = Coat of arms of Serbia.svg , national_anthem = () , image_map = , map_caption = Location of Serbia (gree ...
,
Croatia Croatia, officially the Republic of Croatia, is a country in Central Europe, Central and Southeast Europe, on the coast of the Adriatic Sea. It borders Slovenia to the northwest, Hungary to the northeast, Serbia to the east, Bosnia and Herze ...
and
Montenegro , image_flag = Flag of Montenegro.svg , image_coat = Coat of arms of Montenegro.svg , coa_size = 80 , national_motto = , national_anthem = () , image_map = Europe-Mont ...
. In the 13th century, the population of
medieval Bosnia The history of Bosnia and Herzegovina in the Middle Ages refers to the time period between the Roman era and the 15th-century Ottoman conquest. The Early Middle Ages in the Western Balkans saw the region reconquered from barbarians (Ostrogot ...
and Hum lived in difficult and unsettled political and economic conditions, mostly in a situation where they fiercely defended themselves against Hungarian pretensions, which had reflected in the standard of living, culture, including in the cutting and carving the stećaks. This can to some extent explain the certain poverty of the shape, decorations and inscriptions of the stećak of the 13th century compared to the situation in the 14th and 15th centuries or later.


Background

In terms of its size, elaborate artistic processing and
ornamentation An ornament is something used for decoration. Ornament may also refer to: Decoration * Ornament (art), any purely decorative element in architecture and the decorative arts * Ornamental turning * Biological ornament, a characteristic of animals ...
, and a sheer variety of present forms, one of the most representative and the best-preserved collection of stećaks is Radimlja necropolis, west of
Stolac Stolac ( sr-Cyrl, Столац) is an ancient city located in Herzegovina-Neretva Canton of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, an entity of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is located in the region of Herzegovina. Stolac is one of the oldest cit ...
in Bosnia and Herzegovina, while the
Zgošća Stećak ''Zgošća Stećak'' () is a ''stećak'' (monumental medieval tombstone) discovered in a gorge of the Zgošća (river), Zgošća river, near ''Donja Zgošća'' village, not far from Kakanj in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is one of the most representa ...
is one of the most representative individual examples of ''stećak'' found.


Lying horizontal stećaks


Slabs

The oldest examples of horizontal thick ''
slab Slab or SLAB may refer to: Physical materials * Concrete slab, a flat concrete plate used in construction * Stone slab, a flat stone used in construction * Slab (casting), a length of metal * Slab (geology), that portion of a tectonic plate that ...
'' (a ''
ledger A ledger is a book or collection of accounts in which accounting transactions are recorded. Each account has: * an opening or brought-forward balance; *a list of transactions, each recorded as either a debit or credit in separate columns (usu ...
'' form) stećaks found in the surroundings of
Trebinje Trebinje ( sr-Cyrl, Требиње, ) is a city and municipality in Republika Srpska, Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is the southernmost city in Bosnia and Herzegovina and is situated on the banks of the Trebišnjica river in the region of East Her ...
date from the 12th and 13th centuries. It is assumed that the oldest stećci in the form of ''slabs'' were created following the earlier custom of carving and placing ''slabs'' in and around churches in Bosnia and other countries. ''Slabs'' are the simplest and most widespread form of stećak. It represents a common form that was carved and installed in territories ruled by the
Bosnian medieval state The history of Bosnia and Herzegovina in the Middle Ages refers to the time period between the Roman era and the 15th-century Ottoman conquest. The Early Middle Ages in the Western Balkans saw the region reconquered from barbarians (Ostrogot ...
, territories that include today's Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbia, Croatia and Montenegro. It is in the form of a four-sided lying prism, up to 30 cm high, from 150 to 200 cm long and from 70 to 100 cm wide. There are very large ''slabs'', which sometimes reach a length of more than 300 cm and a width of more than 200 cm, as well as very small ''slabs'', which belong to buried children. A ''slab'' with one incised or plastic line in the middle along its length represents the tombstones for two buried persons. Sometimes they are together with a cross and form one tombstone. In the 13th century, the population of
medieval Bosnia The history of Bosnia and Herzegovina in the Middle Ages refers to the time period between the Roman era and the 15th-century Ottoman conquest. The Early Middle Ages in the Western Balkans saw the region reconquered from barbarians (Ostrogot ...
and Hum lived in difficult and unsettled political and economic conditions, while they fiercely defended themselves from Hungarian pretensions to their country. These circumstances had to be reflected in the culture, including sepulchral culture of producing more elaborate stećaks. This can to some extent explain the certain poverty of the shape, carving and decorations, including inscriptions of the stećak compared to the later situation in the 14th and 15th centuries. Although there is no more reliable evidence for this conclusion, it can be said that the appearance of a larger number of simple ''slabs'', rather than more elaborate ''chests'' and ''gables'', as stećaks in the 13th century, is one of the symptoms of the mentioned circumstances. In the entire territory of distribution, they take about 24% of the total number of stećaks in general.


Chest

Stećaks in the form of '' chests'' are to some extent a higher stage of development and transformation of stećaks in the form of ''slabs''. At the same time, they are a sign and result of settled and more stable social relations, and political and economic situations. This is why they appeared in greater numbers in the 14th century. Gradually, they become bigger, with ''slab'' ''pedestals'', elaborately decorated and with
epitaph An epitaph (; ) is a short text honoring a deceased person. Strictly speaking, it refers to text that is inscribed on a tombstone or plaque, but it may also be used in a figurative sense. Some epitaphs are specified by the person themselves be ...
s. ''Chest-shaped'' stećaks are of different sizes. They are most often 150 to 200 cm long, 70 to 100 cm wide, and 40 to 80 cm high, but there are also very large and very small ones. The stećak from Vlađevina near
Rogatica Rogatica ( sr-cyrl, Рогатица, ) is a town and municipality in Republika Srpska, Bosnia and Herzegovina. As of 2013, the municipality has a population of 10,723 inhabitants, while the town of Rogatica itself has a population of 6,855 inh ...
weighs 25 tons, while the stećak of
Pavle Radinović Pavle Radinović, sometimes Radenović, ( sr-Cyrl, Павле Радиновић; floruit, fl. 1371–d. 1415), was one of the most powerful Bosnians, Bosnian Nobility, nobleman under Tvrtko I (r. 1377–1391), Stephen Dabiša of Bosnia, Dabiša ...
from Pavlovac near Lukavica has a volume of 11.40 m3 and weighs staggering 31 tons and 920 kg. Two huge stećaks are also located in Lužine near
Fojnica Fojnica ( sr-cyrl, Фојница) is a town and municipality located in Central Bosnia Canton of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, an entity of Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is located west of the capital Sarajevo, in the valley of the Foj ...
, which is recently moved to the park next to the ''Reumal'' hotel Some with great height, over 200 cm, are called ''tall chests''. Sometimes the ''chest'' has some sort of step on one of its sides. There are also ''double chests'', that is, stećaks for two buried persons. They can be recognized by the longitudinal ''ribbon'' in the middle of the monument, by the middle of the rectangular upper base, or by the fact that one half of the stećak is higher and the other. Including examples with ''pedestals'', ''chests'' make about 64% of the total number of all stećaks.


Chest with slab pedestal

Chests with slab pedestal are actually made in two forms. One form is ''chest with a pedestal'' ''slab'', which is cut together with a ''chest'' of the one and the same stone – also called ''homogeneous'', and the other form is ''chest on a pedestal slab'', which is cut separately of a separate piece of stone, so it can be said that this variety consists of two parts. There are also ''chests'' with two and even three ''stands'', which look very imposing. Just like an ordinary ''chest'', there is also a variant of a ''double'' stećaks, when, for example, it has a middle one on the upper rectangular base, or when it is carved so that one half is higher and the other lower. No combinations with ''crosses'' have been found, and there are also no ''amorphous'' variants. Also, this shape, like an ordinary chest, has its own different sizes. Along with ordinary ''chests'', this form is by far the most numerous, especially in the eastern parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and as previously emphasized, they make up about 64% of the total number of stećaks in general.


Gable-shaped (sarcophagus)

''Gable-shaped'' or ''sarcophagus'' stećak is a ''chest'' where the upper side is no longer horizontal but resembles a gabled house-roof. The name ''sarcophagus'' is also because at first glance it is similar to the
Roman sarcophagus Roman or Romans most often refers to: *Rome, the capital city of Italy *Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD * Roman people, the people of Roman civilization * Epistle to the Romans, shortened to Romans, a letter ...
. Sometimes the top surfaces of the gables are slightly protruding, and sometimes slightly hollowed out. The top is sometimes high and steep, and sometimes low. There are several varieties of ''gable'' stećaks with four different varieties of top surfaces. In a significant number of examples, the top surface somewhat exceeds the vertical surfaces of the monument, so that viewer experience a top with eaves and gutters. The size of the ''gables'' is very different, especially their height. In Herzegovina they are very high, while in central and northeastern Bosnia, in
Podrinje Podrinje ( sr-Cyrl, Подриње) is the Slavic name of the Drina river basin, known in English as the Drina Valley. The Drina basin is shared between Bosnia and Herzegovina and Serbia, with majority of its territory being located in Eastern ...
, for its low ridges. As with ''chests'', many ''gables'' are beveled towards the bottom. Also, with this form of stećak, there are ''doubles''. Several examples of ''doubles'' were also found consisting of two equal joined – homogeneous – ''gables''. ''Gable-shaped'' stećak can be said to be more carefully and more elaborately carved than the others. It makes about 9% of the total number of stećaks in general.


Gable-shaped with slab pedestal

Most of these stećaks have their own ''pedestals'', which are sometimes carved from the same piece of stone – also called ''homogeneous'', while sometimes they are made from a different piece of stone and represent another, separate, part of the stećak. Due to the fact that ''gables'' are often large and heavy, these stećaks have a more stable position on the ground. Sometimes they have two or three ''stands''. And this form has several subvarieties. Thus, its top surface can be two, three, as well as four in length. Those top surfaces are sometimes slightly protruding or slightly hollowed out. Also, there are so-called ''double gables with (slab) pedestals'', as well as those that are combined with ''chests''. Not a single example of combining ''gables'' with a ''cross'' was found, and there are no ''amorphous'' ''gables'' with ''pedestals'' either. In medieval times they were highly valued and required the hiring of skilled
stonemasons Stonemasonry or stonecraft is the creation of buildings, structures, and sculpture using stone as the primary material. Stonemasonry is the craft of shaping and arranging stones, often together with mortar and even the ancient lime mortar ...
. It comes in various sizes. One of the largest is
Pavle Pavle (Macedonian language, Macedonian and sr-Cyrl, Павле; ka, პავლე) is a Serbian, Macedonian, Croatian and Georgian male given name corresponding to the English Paul (given name), Paul; the name is of biblical origin, coming from ...
's stećak, located in Pavlovac near Lukavica, just outside of
Sarajevo Sarajevo ( ), ; ''see Names of European cities in different languages (Q–T)#S, names in other languages'' is the Capital city, capital and List of cities in Bosnia and Herzegovina, largest city of Bosnia and Herzegovina, with a population of 2 ...
, which weighs nearly 32 tons. This form occupies about 9% of the total number of stećaks.


Standing upright stećaks


Column

''Standing'' stećaks are mostly cut in the form of ''columns''. This form is very similar to the oldest Muslim ''nišan''s without ''turbans'', on which appearance stećaks in the form of ''columns'' had a certain influence during
stećak to nišan transition The ''stećak'' to ''nišan'' transition is a period in Bosnia and Herzegovina History of Bosnia and Herzegovina, history marked by the end of the ''stećak'' tombstones usage and the transition to first ''nišan'' tombstones. It is a cultural phe ...
period. ''Columns'' are nothing more than ''upright slabs'' or ''upright chests''. In order for them to stand firmly, they had to be partially buried or dug in, or in local tongue ''"usaditi"'' (), into the ground which is why they are most often called "''usađenik"''. Thus, some ''columns'' end with a flat top surface, some as a roof with two or three sides. There are ''columns'' that end in a protruding, rounded, barrel-shaped way, as well as those that are arched in that part, lying down. Quite a number of ''upright slabs'' are carved so that they gradually widen from the bottom upwards. And such surfaces have very different finishes. Quite rare examples of ''columns'' that look like ''upright gables'' have also been found. ''Amorphous'' or loosely carved ''upright'' stećaks similar to ''columns'' have been recorded. The number of ''columns'' is about 4% of the total stećak. The fact that the ''columns'' are mostly studded in Serbia and eastern Bosnia, and that there are few of them in central Bosnia, and that in western Bosnia, Herzegovina, Montenegro and Croatia they are a very rare or almost completely exceptional phenomenon, clearly shows where this influence, due to the Turkish-Ottoman presence, first reflected. Stećci ''columns'' are considered to be a phenomenon of the second half of the 15th and the entire 16th century.


Cross-shaped

This form of stećak is generally not represented, and it amounts to about 0.5% of the total number of stećaks. There are relatively many in Herzegovina, and the least in Montenegro and Serbia. It was noticed that the ''cross'' are most often located on the periphery of the necropolis. They are considered to originate from the end of the stećak period, mostly from the 16th century, as a counterpart to the appearance of Muslim ''nišan''s. It is a typical Christian tombstone. They are also of different sizes. Sometimes they are very tall, sometimes they reach a height of over 3 m. They are carved so that their upper three arms are of equal dimensions. The lower vertical arm is always longer than the transverse arms. In many cases, the transverse arms gradually widen towards the ends, and there are also those whose transverse arms are pointed or rounded. Great attention was paid to the creation of the upper upright arm, so that it sometimes ends with a flat surface, sometimes like a pyramid, or is barrel-vaulted, many times it is made round, in the form of a human head, and there are other variants. In the vicinity of Travnik and Zenica, quite a number of ''stećak''s have been recorded, in which the transverse arms are small and barely indicated, and the upper upright is relatively large and round. There are also those whose transverse arms are slightly bent, so they resemble the shoulders of a man. Also, here we have some subtypes of this monument, and thus a certain number of ''crosses'' were found, which together with the associated ''slab'' or ''chest'' make up one monument.


Amorphous

In some necropolises, along with stećci of basic lying and standing forms, there are also stećaks that are not carved at all or are only superficially cut. Many examples of these unprocessed tombstones resemble stećaks in the form of ''slabs'' or ''chests'', and their dimensions are close to those forms. There is a considerable number of ''amorphous'' stećaks that most resemble ''columns'', as the basic forms of ''standing'' stećak.


Territorial distribution of forms

In the middle of the 20th century, records were made of territorial distribution and forms.


Decorations

File:Stecak basic sketch decorative reliefs 1.png, alt=Some basic decorative reliefs found on stećaks. File:Stecak basic sketch decorative reliefs 2.png, alt=Some basic decorative reliefs found on stećaks. Radimlja necropolis is one of the finest examples of stećaks and it's included into a group of 28 selected necropolises now on the
UNESCO The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO ) is a List of specialized agencies of the United Nations, specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) with the aim of promoting world peace and International secur ...
's
World Heritage List World Heritage Sites are landmarks and areas with legal protection under an international treaty administered by UNESCO for having cultural, historical, or scientific significance. The sites are judged to contain "cultural and natural heritag ...
. Nearly half, or sixty three (63), were decorated in bas relief, engraving or a combination. The finest decorated examples are tall ''chests with pedestal'' and ''sarcophagus with pedestal'', used to mark a grave of the social elite.
Ornaments An ornament is something used for decoration. Ornament may also refer to: Decoration *Ornament (art), any purely decorative element in architecture and the decorative arts *Ornamental turning *Biological ornament, a characteristic of animals tha ...
include curved lines with trefoil, plastic zigzag, radial circle, rosette, depiction of plastic circles, cluster, rod shaped as letter T, spiral curves. The depiction of arrow and bow on ''
voivode Voivode ( ), also spelled voivod, voievod or voevod and also known as vaivode ( ), voivoda, vojvoda, vaivada or wojewoda, is a title denoting a military leader or warlord in Central, Southeastern and Eastern Europe in use since the Early Mid ...
'' (ducal) stećci was related to military function. Figural depictions can be divided to those of male figures with raised right hand, or ''stećci'' that symbolize Vitus and scenes of hunting, posthumous kolo and chivalric tournaments, with basic artistic and religious interweaving of pagan and Christian ideas. The inscriptions mention deceased person(s), their family and other inhabitants related to person(s), are sometimes present.


References


Bibliography

* {{Portal, Bosnia and Herzegovina Rock art in Bosnia and Herzegovina Cultural history of Bosnia and Herzegovina