''Spongia officinalis'', better known as a variety of bath sponge, is a commercially used

sea sponge Sponges or sea sponges are primarily marine invertebrates of the animal phylum Porifera (; meaning 'pore bearer'), a basal clade and a sister taxon of the diploblasts. They are sessile filter feeders that are bound to the seabed, and are o ...

. Individuals grow in large lobes with small openings and are formed by a mesh of primary and secondary fibers. It is light grey to black in color. It is found throughout the

Mediterranean Sea The Mediterranean Sea ( ) is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the east by the Levant in West Asia, on the north by Anatolia in West Asia and Southern Eur ...

up to 100 meters deep on rocky or sandy surfaces. ''Spongia officinalis'' can reproduce both asexually, through

budding Budding or blastogenesis is a type of asexual reproduction in which a new organism develops from an outgrowth or bud due to cell division at one particular site. For example, the small bulb-like projection coming out from the yeast cell is kno ...

or fragmentation, or sexually. Individuals can be

dioecious Dioecy ( ; ; adj. dioecious, ) is a characteristic of certain species that have distinct unisexual individuals, each producing either male or female gametes, either directly (in animals) or indirectly (in seed plants). Dioecious reproduction is ...

sequential hermaphrodites Sequential hermaphroditism (called dichogamy in botany) is one of the two types of hermaphroditism, the other type being simultaneous hermaphroditism. It occurs when the organism's sex changes at some point in its life. A sequential hermaphrodite ...

. The free-swimming larvae are lecithotrophic and grow slowly after attaching to a benthic surface. Humans use and interact with ''S. officinalis'' in a variety of ways. Harvested sponges have been used throughout history for many purposes, including washing and painting.

Over-harvesting Overexploitation, also called overharvesting or ecological overshoot, refers to harvesting a renewable resource to the point of diminishing returns. Continued overexploitation can lead to the destruction of the resource, as it will be unable to ...

and sponge disease have led to a decrease in

population Population is a set of humans or other organisms in a given region or area. Governments conduct a census to quantify the resident population size within a given jurisdiction. The term is also applied to non-human animals, microorganisms, and pl ...

Sponge fishing Sponge diving is underwater diving to collect soft natural sponges for human use. Background Most sponges are too rough for general use due to their structural spicules composed of calcium carbonate or silica. But two genera, '' Hippospongia' ...

practices have slowly changed over time as new technology has developed and sponge farming is now in use to decrease stress on wild ''S. officinalis'' populations. Sponge farming is also recommended as a solution to reducing marine organic pollution, especially from fish farms.

Anatomy and morphology

''Spongia officinalis'' grows in massive, globular lobes with fine openings which are slightly elevated and have cone-shaped voids (conules). Oscula can either be scattered or at the tip of the lobes. ''Spongia officinalis'' have an ectosomal skeleton composed of primary and secondary fibers. Together, they form the conulose openings. The sponge also contains a

choanosomal A choanosome is an inner region of a sponge, supported on the choanoskeleton, the structure that contains the choanocytes. See also * Choanoderm The choanoderm is a type of cell layer composed of flagellated collar cells, or choanocytes, f ...

skeleton, which consists of a dense, irregular mesh of polygons formed by secondary fibers and primary fibers rise from it. The primary fibers are 50 to 100 nanometers in diameter and are composed of

spongin Spongin, a modified type of collagen protein, forms the fibrous skeleton of most organisms among the phylum Porifera, the sponges. It is secreted by sponge cells known as spongocytes. Spongin gives a sponge its flexibility. True spongin is found ...

and inclusions such as sand grains and

spicules Spicules are any of various small needle-like anatomical structures occurring in organisms Spicule may also refer to: *Spicule (sponge), small skeletal elements of sea sponges *Spicule (nematode), reproductive structures found in male nematodes ( ...

. The secondary fibers are 20 to 35 nanometers in diameter and are composed of only spongin without inclusions. ''Spongia officinalis'' is light grey to black in color.

Distribution and habitat

''Spongia officinalis'' can be found in the Mediterranean Sea along the coasts of Croatia, Greece, the Aegean islands, Turkey, Cyprus, Syria, Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Italy, France and Spain. They are distributed in shallow water (1 to 10 meters below the surface) down to 100 meters deep. They will grow on

littoral The littoral zone, also called litoral or nearshore, is the part of a sea, lake, or river that is close to the shore. In coastal ecology, the littoral zone includes the intertidal zone extending from the high water mark (which is rarely i ...

rocky surfaces, sandy bottoms, and vertical walls in well-oxygenated water.

Reproduction

''Spongia officinalis'' can reproduce asexually via

or fragmentation. Sexual reproduction is also common in ''S. officinalis''. Individuals can be

, either male or female, or

, meaning they can alternate between male and female. Successive hermaphroditism can take place within one reproductive season. Sperm is formed in spermatic cysts and is free spawned into the surrounding water. Sperm is captured by females and is transported to

oocyte An oocyte (, oöcyte, or ovocyte) is a female gametocyte or germ cell involved in reproduction. In other words, it is an immature ovum, or egg cell. An oocyte is produced in a female fetus in the ovary during female gametogenesis. The female ger ...

s within the sponge where

fertilization Fertilisation or fertilization (see American and British English spelling differences#-ise, -ize (-isation, -ization), spelling differences), also known as generative fertilisation, syngamy and impregnation, is the fusion of gametes to give ...

takes place. The occurrence of sexual reproduction peaks from October to November. There is no relationship between age and reproductive ability in ''S. officinalis''.

Life cycle

After fertilization, ''S. officinalis'' embryos develop in

tissue of the female sponge.

Cleavage Cleavage may refer to: Science * Cleavage (crystal), the way in which a crystal or mineral tends to split * Cleavage (embryo), the division of cells in an early embryo * Cleavage (geology), foliation of rock perpendicular to stress, a result of ...

of cells begins after fertilization, around November, and is total and equal. By May, a stereoblastula, or a

blastula Blastulation is the stage in early animal embryonic development that produces the blastula. In mammalian development, the blastula develops into the blastocyst with a differentiated inner cell mass and an outer trophectoderm. The blastula (fr ...

without a clear central cavity, forms. From May to July,

parenchymella Parenchymella is a type of larva of a demosponge Demosponges or common sponges are sponges of the class Demospongiae (from + ), the most diverse group in the phylum Porifera which include greater than 90% of all extant sponges with n ...

larva, or larva which is a mass of cells enveloped in

flagella A flagellum (; : flagella) (Latin for 'whip' or 'scourge') is a hair-like appendage that protrudes from certain plant and animal sperm cells, from fungal spores ( zoospores), and from a wide range of microorganisms to provide motility. Many pr ...

ted cells, develop. These larvae are released from the adult from June to July. Like all sponges, ''S. officinalis'' larvae are lecithotrophic, meaning they cannot feed as larva and instead rely on energy reserves provided by the mother. Therefore, they only remain as a free-floating larva for a short period before settling on a benthic surface where they grow into an adult sponge.

Taxonomy

''Spongia officinalis'' was first described by

Carl Linnaeus Carl Linnaeus (23 May 1707 – 10 January 1778), also known after ennoblement in 1761 as Carl von Linné,#Blunt, Blunt (2004), p. 171. was a Swedish biologist and physician who formalised binomial nomenclature, the modern system of naming o ...

in 1759. The common names "bath sponge," "Fina Dalmata," and "Matapas" are usually used to refer to this species.

Human uses and interactions

Uses

The use of bath sponges for bathing and other purposes originated in Greece and spread all around Europe during the Middle Ages. From there, the use of sponges spread further, with Mediterranean bath sponges currently being shipped globally. ''S. officinalis'' was used by humans in many ways in the past. Aside from using the sponge for washing, some of these uses included padding in Roman soldiers helmets, as absorbent material during surgeries, as medicine to help digestive issues, and as a primitive "

contraceptive sponge The contraceptive sponge is a contraceptive which combines barrier and spermicidal methods to prevent conception. Sponges work in two ways. First, the sponge is inserted into the vagina, so it can cover the cervix and prevent any sperm from en ...

". Today, sponges are still used for washing and are also used for recreational purposes, like sponge painting.

Fishing practices

Sponge fishing in the Mediterranean has been in practice since ancient times. Aristotle even wrote of it around 350 BC. Traditionally, sponge fishing was practiced by Greeks who dove underwater to collect specimens. The practice remained this way until the late 19th century. There was a small increase in sponge fishing at the end of the 19th century due to the invention of a new diving suit, but the suit was not very safe so sponge fishing did not grow much in popularity. Around 1910 to 1930, an underwater breathing device was created and, since then, this method of sponge fishing has continually grown in popularity. Sponges can also be collected after they wash up on beaches or they can be fished from a boat.

Farming

As ''S. officinalis'' populations declined due to over-harvest, as discussed below, interest in cultivation increased. Towards the end of the 19th century, the first sponge farming attempts were made in the Mediterranean Sea by fixing sponge fragments onto wooden boxes and setting them into suitable habitats. Although the efforts were successful, sponge farming activity did not increase significantly until the end of the 20th century and currently, it is performed worldwide. Sponge farming not only decreases

stress Stress may refer to: Science and medicine * Stress (biology), an organism's response to a stressor such as an environmental condition * Stress (linguistics), relative emphasis or prominence given to a syllable in a word, or to a word in a phra ...

on ''S. officinalis'' populations, it also can be used as a sustainable method to reduce marine organic pollution because, sponges being

filter feeder Filter feeders are aquatic animals that acquire nutrients by feeding on organic matters, food particles or smaller organisms (bacteria, microalgae and zooplanktons) suspended in water, typically by having the water pass over or through a s ...

s, they efficiently remove organic suspended particles from water. For this reason, sponge cultivation in combination with

fish farming Fish farming or pisciculture involves commercial breeding of fish, most often for food, in fish tanks or artificial enclosures such as fish ponds. It is a particular type of aquaculture, which is the controlled cultivation and harvesting of ...

has been recommended as a method to reduce organic pollution from fish farms. Bath sponge Spongia officinalis Greece

Conservation status

Over-harvesting and sponge disease have led to a decrease in Mediterranean ''S. officinalis''

s. People have harvested sponges in the Mediterranean since ancient times. Growing

demand In economics, demand is the quantity of a goods, good that consumers are willing and able to purchase at various prices during a given time. In economics "demand" for a commodity is not the same thing as "desire" for it. It refers to both the desi ...

has led to overexploitation of these sponges. Beginning in the 1980s, populations of ''S. officinalis'' in the Mediterranean have significantly declined. In addition to this, a sponge disease caused by pathogenic bacteria and fungi has further reduced populations. The bacteria and fungi destroy tissues and fibers of the sponges, making them weak. Due to the regenerative abilities of these sponges, they are able to set aside infected tissue and recover. But, when the effects of the disease are compounded by the effects of over-harvesting, populations have struggled to recover and

local extinction Local extinction, also extirpation, is the termination of a species (or other taxon) in a chosen geographic area of study, though it still exists elsewhere. Local extinctions are contrasted with extinction, global extinctions. Local extinctions ...

s have occurred.

References

Baldacconi, R., et al. "Sexual reproduction, larval development and release in Spongia officinalis L.(Porifera, Demospongiae) from the Apulian coast." ''Marine Biology'' 152.4 (2007): 969-979. Baldacconi, Rossella, et al. "Transplantation of Spongia officinalis L.(Porifera, Demospongiae): a technical approach for restocking this endangered species." Marine Ecology 31.2 (2010): 309-317. Cook, S.D.C., and P.R. Bergquist. “Family Spongiidae Gray.” 1867: 1051-1060. In Hooper, J. N. A. and R. W. M. Van Soest. (ed.) “Systema Porifera. A guide to the classification of sponges. 1 (Kluwer Academic/ Plenum Publishers: New York, Boston, Dordrecht, London, Moscow).” 2002. De Laubenfels, Max Walker. "Guide to the sponges of eastern North America." (1953). Díaz, Humberto, and Marina Bevilacqua. ''Esponjas en manglares del Parque Nacional Morrocoy''. Fondo Editorial Acta Científico Venezolana, 1985. Esponjas (Esponjas de baño). Pp: 111. 1980: En; Diccionario Monográfico del Reino Animal. Biblograf, S.A. España. Gaino, Elda, et al. "Mortality of commercial sponges: incidence in two Mediterranean areas." ''Italian Journal of Zoology'' 59.1 (1992): 79-85. Gifford, Scott, et al. "Aquatic zooremediation: deploying animals to remediate contaminated aquatic environments." ''TRENDS in Biotechnology'' 25.2 (2007): 60-65. Linné, Carl von. ''Systema naturae per regna tria naturae: secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Vol. 1, pt. 7''. Lugduni: Apud JB Delamolliere, 1789. Pronzato, Roberto, and Renata Manconi. "Mediterranean commercial sponges: over 5000 years of natural history and cultural heritage." ''Marine Ecology'' 29.2 (2008): 146-166. Pronzato, Roberto. "Sponge‐fishing, disease and farming in the Mediterranean Sea." ''Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems'' 9.5 (1999): 485-493. Riesgo, Ana, et al. "Some like it fat: comparative ultrastructure of the embryo in two Demosponges of the Genus Mycale (Order Poecilosclerida) from Antarctica and the Caribbean." ''PLOS ONE'' 10.3 (2015). Rützler, Klaus, Rob WM van Soest, and Carla Piantoni. "Sponges (Porifera) of the Gulf of Mexico." ''Gulf of Mexico Origins, Waters, and Biota'' 1 (2009): 285-313. Stabili, Loredana, et al. "Filtering activity of Spongia officinalis var. adriatica (Schmidt)(Porifera, Demospongiae) on bacterioplankton: implications for bioremediation of polluted seawater." ''Water research'' 40.16 (2006): 3083-3090.

External links

Spongia officinalis info

World Register of Marine Species

Integrated Taxonomic Information System: Spongia officinalis Taxonomic Serial No.: 47545

ZipCodeZoo.com: Spongia officinalis (Dalmatische Spons;badspons)

Biodiversity Heritage Library (BHL): Spongia officinalis
* * {{Taxonbar, from=Q652237 Spongiidae Animals described in 1759 Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus