''Sparicotyle chrysophrii'' is a

species A species () is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate sexes or mating types can produce fertile offspring, typically by sexual reproduction. It is the basic unit of Taxonomy (biology), ...

monogenea Monogeneans, members of the class Monogenea, are a group of ectoparasitic flatworms commonly found on the skin, gills, or fins of fish. They have a direct lifecycle and do not require an intermediate host. Adults are hermaphrodites, meaning they ...

parasitic Parasitism is a close relationship between species, where one organism, the parasite, lives (at least some of the time) on or inside another organism, the host, causing it some harm, and is adapted structurally to this way of life. The ent ...

on the

gills A gill () is a respiratory organ that many aquatic organisms use to extract dissolved oxygen from water and to excrete carbon dioxide. The gills of some species, such as hermit crabs, have adapted to allow respiration on land provided they are ...

of the marine

fish A fish (: fish or fishes) is an aquatic animal, aquatic, Anamniotes, anamniotic, gill-bearing vertebrate animal with swimming fish fin, fins and craniate, a hard skull, but lacking limb (anatomy), limbs with digit (anatomy), digits. Fish can ...

. It belongs to the family

Microcotylidae Microcotylidae is a family of polyopisthocotylean monogeneans.WoRMS (2018). Microcotylidae Taschenberg, 1879. Accessed at: http://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=119247 on 2018-12-03 All the species in this family are parasitic on ...

. Its type-host is the gilt-head seabream ('' Sparus aurata''). Sparicotyle chrysophrii

The species was described by Van Beneden & Hesse in 1863 under the name ''Microcotyle chrysophrii'' Van Beneden, P. J., & Hesse, C. E. (1863). Second Appendice au Mémoire sur les Bdellodes et les Trématodes: Mémoire présenté à l'Académie Royale de Belgique. and transferred to the genus ''Sparicotyle'' (Figure 2-4) by Mamaev in 1984. Its morphology has been described in 2010 from specimens collected off

Corsica Corsica ( , , ; ; ) is an island in the Mediterranean Sea and one of the Regions of France, 18 regions of France. It is the List of islands in the Mediterranean#By area, fourth-largest island in the Mediterranean and lies southeast of the Metro ...

by Antonelli et al. It is ubiquitous and abundant in the aquatic environment, isolated from fish as ectoparasite on gill filaments. ''S. chrysophrii'' is specific but not limited to the gilt-head seabream (''Sparus aurata''), causing mortalities when contacted at high prevalence (61.5%) in fish cages. It has been suggested that wild fish, mostly sparids that aggregate around aquaculture fish cages, can act as the infection reservoir for the fish in cages. It has been suggested that overcrowding in fish cages can also increase its transmission. As all monogeneans, it is hermaphroditic. Gravid specimens release eggs into the sea where they continue to develop and hatch into oncomiracidia – free swimming ciliated larva that eventually finds and attaches to the host.Repullés-Albelda, A., Holzer, A.S., Raga, J.A., Montero, F.E. 2012. Oncomiracidial development, survival and swimming behaviour of the monogenean ''Sparicotyle chrysophrii'' (Van Beneden and Hesse, 1863). Aquaculture, 338, pp.47-55. An infection by ''S. chrysophrii'' causes lethargy due to the hypoxia, "necrosis of gill filaments" and severe anaemia,Sitjà-Bobadilla, A., de Felipe, M.C., Alvarez-Pellitero, P. 2006. ''In vivo'' and ''in vitro'' treatments against ''Sparicotyle chrysophrii'' (Monogenea: Microcotylidae) parasitizing the gills of gilthead seabream (''Sparus aurata'' L.). Aquaculture 261:856–864. with several histopatological effects: lamellar shortening, clubbing and synechiae, proliferation of the epithelial tissue with resulting fusion of the secondary lamellae, and marked presence of chloride cell, which may lead to death.Sitjà-Bobadilla, A., Alvarez-Pellitero, P. 2009. Experimental transmission of ''Sparicotyle chrysophrii'' (Monogenea: Polyopisthocotylea) to gilthead seabream (''Sparus aurata'') and histopathology of the infection. Folia Parasitol. 56:143–151. Economic impact encompasses direct losses from the mortalities and the cost of treatment. It has been suggested that the monogenean causes an increase by >0.4 of the total feed conversion rate (FCR) of the infected gilt-head seabream, which translates in an increased feed requirement for over 50,000 tons during the production (Rigos G., unpubl. data).

Taxonomy

Phylum: Platyhelminthes, class: Monogenea, order: Mazocraeidea, family: Microcotylidae, genus: Sparicotyle, species: ''Sparicotyle chrysophrii.'' The species was originally described by Van Beneden and Hesse in 1863 under the name ''Microcotyle chrysophrii'' and transferred to the genus ''Sparicotyle'' by Mamaev in 1984. Its morphology has been described from specimens collected off

by Antonelli et al.

Life cycle

All monogeneans are hermaphroditic. Gravid parasites release eggs into the sea where they continue to develop and hatch into oncomiracidia – free swimming ciliated larva. Hatching starts five days (20 °C) after deposition of the eggs and can be prolonged up to the day 10 (20 °C). Oncomiracidia can survive maximally 52 h (20 °C) in the sea water column, after which they need to find a suitable host. Eggs of ''S. chrysophrii'' (Figure 5) are ovoid with two tendril-like projections that allow the egg to attach to potential substrate, such as cage nets, biofouling and lamellar epithelium.

Pathology and clinical signs

An infection by ''S. chrysophrii'' causes lethargy due to the hypoxia and severe anaemia. Sitjà-Bobadilla et al. evidenced the following histopatological effects: lamellar shortening, clubbing and synechiae, proliferation of the epithelial tissue with resulting fusion of the secondary lamellae, and marked presence of chloride cells. ''S. chrysophrii'' causes severe pathogenicity (gill lesions, systemic anemia, lamellae fusion, sloughing of epithel cells) even at the low infection intensity (eight parasites per gill arch). De Vico et al. observed that in infected seabreams' spleen there was a dramatic increase in size and number of splenic melanomacrophage centres, suggesting increased levels of the hemosiderin (resulting from the erythrocyte's destruction) and lipofuscin, common in tissue catabolism and degenerative chronic disorders. Secondary infections with other parasites and bacteria are common for the ''S. chrysophrii''-infected seabream.

Impact

In the experimental studies, fingerling seabream (30 g) had prevalence up to 100%, and the larger fish (150 g) 96.6%. Some authors found positive correlation between increase of sexual hormone levels and susceptibility to monogeneans,Escobedo, G., Roberts, C.W., Carrero, J.C., Morales-Montor, J. 2005. Parasite regulation by host hormones: an old mechanism of host exploitation? Trends Parasitol. 21:588–593 while others suggest that in the larger fish, water current passing through the gills is stronger than in the smaller fish, therefore disabling the settlement of oncomiracidia.

Diagnosis

''S. chrysophrii'' infection is diagnosed by examining the gills under the stereomicroscope and determining the presence of the different parasite stages.

Treatments

Currently, only formalin baths are regulated in some European countries. 30 min bath in formalin (300 ppm) is 100% effective for eggs, oncomiracidia and adults in ''in vitro'' treatments, and hydrogen peroxide (200 ppm) is 100% effective for oncomiracidia and adults.

Other control strategies

Recommend synchronization of fish baths with net changing to lower the possibility of infection or re-infection. Regular parasite counts from gills are recommended to decide bath treatments and avoid sudden outbreaks.

Research

Different aspects of monogenean biology, ecology and pathology have been investigated through the EU funded Horizon2020 Projec
ParaFishControl
adding greatly to the generation of new fundamental and applicable knowledge. The genome and transcriptome of ''S. chrysophrii'' different developmental stages has been sequenced; the gilt-head seabream response to chronic and mild infection by ''S. chrysophrii'' has been evaluated using RNA-seq, as well standard histology and immunohistochemistry techniques; an array of synthetic compounds and herbal extracts has been tested to infer toxicity on the adult monogenean; assessment of the transfer of the monogenean between wild and farmed fish has been done using ddRAD-seq; different techniques of ''in vitro'' culture have been successfully applied.

References

{{Taxonbar, from=Q2030129 Microcotylidae Parasites of fish Animals described in 1863 Fauna of France