Space Law
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Space law is the body of
law Law is a set of rules that are created and are enforceable by social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior, with its precise definition a matter of longstanding debate. It has been variously described as a science and as the ar ...
governing space-related activities, encompassing both international and domestic agreements, rules, and principles. Parameters of space law include
space exploration Space exploration is the process of utilizing astronomy and space technology to investigate outer space. While the exploration of space is currently carried out mainly by astronomers with telescopes, its physical exploration is conducted bo ...
, liability for damage, weapons use, rescue efforts, environmental preservation, information sharing, new technologies, and
ethics Ethics is the philosophy, philosophical study of Morality, moral phenomena. Also called moral philosophy, it investigates Normativity, normative questions about what people ought to do or which behavior is morally right. Its main branches inclu ...
. Other fields of law, such as
administrative law Administrative law is a division of law governing the activities of government agency, executive branch agencies of government. Administrative law includes executive branch rulemaking (executive branch rules are generally referred to as "regul ...
,
intellectual property law Intellectual property (IP) is a category of property that includes intangible creations of the human intellect. There are many types of intellectual property, and some countries recognize more than others. The best-known types are patents, ...
, arms control law,
insurance law Insurance law is the practice of law surrounding insurance, including insurance policies and claims. It can be broadly broken into three categories - regulation of the business of insurance; regulation of the content of insurance policies, especia ...
,
environmental law Environmental laws are laws that protect the environment. The term "environmental law" encompasses treaties, statutes, regulations, conventions, and policies designed to protect the natural environment and manage the impact of human activitie ...
,
criminal law Criminal law is the body of law that relates to crime. It proscribes conduct perceived as threatening, harmful, or otherwise endangering to the property, health, safety, and Well-being, welfare of people inclusive of one's self. Most criminal l ...
, and
commercial law Commercial law (or business law), which is also known by other names such as mercantile law or trade law depending on jurisdiction; is the body of law that applies to the rights, relations, and conduct of Legal person, persons and organizations ...
, are also integrated within space law. The origins of space law date back to 1919, with
international law International law, also known as public international law and the law of nations, is the set of Rule of law, rules, norms, Customary law, legal customs and standards that State (polity), states and other actors feel an obligation to, and generall ...
recognizing each country's sovereignty over the airspace directly above their territory, later reinforced at the
Chicago Convention The Convention on International Civil Aviation, also known as the Chicago Convention, established the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), a specialized agency of the United Nations charged with coordinating international air trav ...
in 1944. The onset of domestic space programs during the Cold War propelled the official creation of international space policy (i.e., the
International Geophysical Year The International Geophysical Year (IGY; ), also referred to as the third International Polar Year, was an international scientific project that lasted from 1 July 1957 to 31 December 1958. It marked the end of a long period during the Cold War w ...
) initiated by the
International Council of Scientific Unions The International Council for Science (ICSU, after its former name, International Council of Scientific Unions) was an international non-governmental organization devoted to international cooperation in the advancement of science. Its members ...
. The
Soviet Union The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...
's 1957 launch of the world's first artificial satellite,
Sputnik 1 Sputnik 1 (, , ''Satellite 1''), sometimes referred to as simply Sputnik, was the first artificial Earth satellite. It was launched into an elliptical low Earth orbit by the Soviet Union on 4 October 1957 as part of the Soviet space program ...
, directly spurred the
United States Congress The United States Congress is the legislature, legislative branch of the federal government of the United States. It is a Bicameralism, bicameral legislature, including a Lower house, lower body, the United States House of Representatives, ...
to pass the Space Act, thus creating the
National Aeronautics and Space Administration The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA ) is an independent agency of the US federal government responsible for the United States's civil space program, aeronautics research and space research. Established in 1958, it su ...
(NASA). Because space exploration required crossing transnational boundaries, it was during this era where space law became a field independent from traditional aerospace law. Since the Cold War, the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (the "Outer Space Treaty") and the
International Telecommunication Union The International Telecommunication Union (ITU)In the other common languages of the ITU: * * is a list of specialized agencies of the United Nations, specialized agency of the United Nations responsible for many matters related to information ...
have served as the constitutional legal framework and set of principles and procedures constituting space law. Further, the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS), along with its Legal and Scientific and Technical Subcommittees, are responsible for debating issues of international space law and policy. The United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA) serves as the secretariat of the committee and promotes Access to Space for All through a wide range of conferences and capacity-building programs. Challenges that space law will continue to face in the future are fourfold—spanning across dimensions of domestic compliance, international cooperation, ethics, and the advent of scientific innovations. Furthermore, specific guidelines on the definition of airspace have yet to be universally determined.


Early developments

One of the earliest works on space law was
Czech Czech may refer to: * Anything from or related to the Czech Republic, a country in Europe ** Czech language ** Czechs, the people of the area ** Czech culture ** Czech cuisine * One of three mythical brothers, Lech, Czech, and Rus *Czech (surnam ...
jurist Vladimír Mandl's (Space Law: A Problem of Space Travel), written in German and published in 1932. At
Caltech The California Institute of Technology (branded as Caltech) is a private university, private research university in Pasadena, California, United States. The university is responsible for many modern scientific advancements and is among a small g ...
in 1942 Theodore von Kármán and other rocket scientists banded together to form Aerojet rocket company with the help of lawyer Andrew G. Haley. To toast the new corporation, Kármán said, "Now, Andy, we will make the rockets—you must make the corporation and obtain the money. Later on, you will have to see that we behave well in outer space. ... After all, we are the scientists but you are the lawyer, and you must tell us how to behave ourselves according to law and to safeguard our innocence." Indeed, twenty years later, Haley published the fundamental textbook, ''Space Law and Government''. Beginning in 1957 with the
Space Race The Space Race (, ) was a 20th-century competition between the Cold War rivals, the United States and the Soviet Union, to achieve superior spaceflight capability. It had its origins in the ballistic missile-based nuclear arms race between t ...
, nations began discussing systems to ensure the peaceful use of outer space.inesap.org
Peaceful Uses of Outer Space and International Law.
Bilateral discussions between the United States and the USSR in 1958 resulted in the presentation of issues to the UN for debate. In 1959, the UN created the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS). COPUOS in turn created two subcommittees, the Scientific and Technical Subcommittee and the Legal Subcommittee. The COPUOS Legal Subcommittee has been a primary forum for discussion and negotiation of international agreements relating to outer space. In 1960, the International Astronautical Congress met in Stockholm and heard several submissions including a survey of legal opinion on extraterrestrial jurisdiction by Andrew G. Haley. Starting in 1961, the General Assembly Resolution 1721 (XVI) and later 1802 (XVII), both titled "International Cooperation in the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space", and Resolution 1962 (XVIII), or a "Declaration of Legal Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space" were passed unanimously. These basic principles formed the foundation of the 1967
Outer Space Treaty The Outer Space Treaty, formally the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, is a Multilateralism, multilateral treaty that forms the bas ...
.


International treaties

Six international treaties have been negotiated to govern state behaviour in space: The Rescue Agreement, the Liability Convention and the Registration Convention all elaborate on provisions of the Outer Space Treaty. Many consider the Moon Treaty to be a failed treaty due to its limited acceptance. Others however have suggested to compliment the Moon Treaty, to accommodate raised issues with it, while employing its qualities.


1998 ISS agreement

In addition to the international treaties that have been negotiated at the United Nations, the nations participating in the
International Space Station The International Space Station (ISS) is a large space station that was Assembly of the International Space Station, assembled and is maintained in low Earth orbit by a collaboration of five space agencies and their contractors: NASA (United ...
have entered into the 1998 Agreement among the governments of
Canada Canada is a country in North America. Its Provinces and territories of Canada, ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, making it the world's List of coun ...
, Member States of the
European Space Agency The European Space Agency (ESA) is a 23-member International organization, international organization devoted to space exploration. With its headquarters in Paris and a staff of around 2,547 people globally as of 2023, ESA was founded in 1975 ...
,
Japan Japan is an island country in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean off the northeast coast of the Asia, Asian mainland, it is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan and extends from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea ...
,
Russian Federation Russia, or the Russian Federation, is a country spanning Eastern Europe and North Asia. It is the list of countries and dependencies by area, largest country in the world, and extends across Time in Russia, eleven time zones, sharing Borders ...
, and the
United States The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...
concerning cooperation on the Civil International Space Station. This agreement provides, among other things, that NASA is the lead agency in coordinating the member states' contributions to and activities on the space station, and that each nation has jurisdiction over its own module(s). The agreement also provides for protection of intellectual property and procedures for criminal prosecution. This agreement may very well serve as a model for future agreements regarding international cooperation in facilities on the Moon and Mars, where the first off-world colonies and scientific/industrial bases are likely to be established.


International principles and declarations

The five treaties and agreements of international space law cover "non-appropriation of outer space by any one country, arms control, the freedom of exploration, liability for damage caused by space objects, the safety and rescue of spacecraft and astronauts, the prevention of harmful interference with space activities and the environment, the notification and registration of space activities, scientific investigation and the
exploitation of natural resources The exploitation of natural resources describes using natural resources, often non-renewable or limited, for economic growth or development. Environmental degradation, human insecurity, and social conflict frequently accompany natural resource ex ...
in outer space and the settlement of disputes". The
United Nations General Assembly The United Nations General Assembly (UNGA or GA; , AGNU or AG) is one of the six principal organs of the United Nations (UN), serving as its main deliberative, policymaking, and representative organ. Currently in its Seventy-ninth session of th ...
adopted five declarations and legal principles which encourage exercising
international law International law, also known as public international law and the law of nations, is the set of Rule of law, rules, norms, Customary law, legal customs and standards that State (polity), states and other actors feel an obligation to, and generall ...
s, as well as unified communication between countries. The five declarations and principles are: :*The Declaration of Legal Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Uses of Outer Space (1963) :All space exploration will be done with good intentions and is equally open to all States that comply with international law. No one nation may claim ownership of outer space or any celestial body. Activities carried out in space must abide by the international law and the nations undergoing these said activities must accept responsibility for the governmental or non-governmental agency involved. Objects launched into space are subject to their nation of belonging, including people. Objects, parts, and components discovered outside the jurisdiction of a nation will be returned upon identification. If a nation launches an object into space, they are responsible for any damages that occur internationally. :*Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (1979) :The agreement, also called Moon Treaty exists to promote the exploration of outer space, but to keep the Moon and other
celestial bodies An astronomical object, celestial object, stellar object or heavenly body is a naturally occurring physical entity, association, or structure that exists within the observable universe. In astronomy, the terms ''object'' and ''body'' are of ...
in pristine conditions for the
common heritage of mankind Common heritage of humanity (also termed the common heritage of mankind, common heritage of humankind or common heritage principle) is a principle of international law that holds the defined territorial areas and elements of humanity's common heri ...
, meaning that no nation may claim
sovereignty Sovereignty can generally be defined as supreme authority. Sovereignty entails hierarchy within a state as well as external autonomy for states. In any state, sovereignty is assigned to the person, body or institution that has the ultimate au ...
over any part of space. All countries should have equal rights to conduct research on the Moon or other celestial bodies.
Weapons of mass destruction A weapon of mass destruction (WMD) is a Biological agent, biological, chemical weapon, chemical, Radiological weapon, radiological, nuclear weapon, nuclear, or any other weapon that can kill or significantly harm many people or cause great dam ...
of any kind including nuclear and bases built for military purposes are specifically banned by the treaty. The
United Nations The United Nations (UN) is the Earth, global intergovernmental organization established by the signing of the Charter of the United Nations, UN Charter on 26 June 1945 with the stated purpose of maintaining international peace and internationa ...
resolution also states that all State Parties may conduct their enterprises below the surface of the Moon or any celestial body so long as efforts are made to protect it from contamination. All activities in space are required to be attached to a nation and any damages to other nations equipment or facilities caused by another party must be repaid in full to that nation. Any discovery of a dangerous hazard such as an area that is radioactive must notify the United Nations Secretary General and the greater international scientific community immediately. :All missions in space lasting longer than 60 days must notify the UN Secretary General and the greater scientific community every 30 days of progress. Any samples that are collected from space must be made available at earliest convenience to the scientific community. The agreement does not include
meteorite A meteorite is a rock (geology), rock that originated in outer space and has fallen to the surface of a planet or Natural satellite, moon. When the original object enters the atmosphere, various factors such as friction, pressure, and chemical ...
s that fall to Earth by natural means. Currently not a single nation that conducts its own missions in space has ratified the agreement. This likely signifies that the 'Moon Treaty is likely a failed treaty because none of the nations that actually go into space signed or ratified the agreement. That said the need for a lunar activities regulating agreement has been pointed out and proposed to be combined with a Moon Treaty clarifying ''Implementation Agreement''. : :*The Principles Governing the Use by States of Artificial Earth Satellites for International Direct Television Broadcasting (1982) :Activities of this nature must be transpired in accordance with the sovereign rights of States. Said activities should "promote the free dissemination and mutual exchange of information and knowledge in cultural and scientific fields, assist in educational, social and economic development, particularly in the developing countries, enhance the qualities of life of all peoples and provide recreation with due respect to the political and cultural integrity of States". All States have equal rights to pursue these activities and must maintain responsibility for anything carried out under their boundaries of authority. State's planning activities need to contact the Secretary-General of the United Nations with details of the undergoing activities. :*The Principles Relating to Remote Sensing of the Earth from Outer Space (1986) :Fifteen principles are stated under this category. The basic understanding comes from these descriptions given by the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs: :(a) The term "
remote sensing Remote sensing is the acquisition of information about an physical object, object or phenomenon without making physical contact with the object, in contrast to in situ or on-site observation. The term is applied especially to acquiring inform ...
" means the sensing of the Earth's surface from space by making use of the properties of electromagnetic waves emitted, reflected or: diffracted by the sensed objects, for the purpose of improving natural resources management, land use and the protection of the environment; :(b) The term "primary data" means those raw data that are acquired by remote sensors borne by a space object and that are transmitted or delivered to the ground: from space by telemetry in the form of electromagnetic signals, by photographic film, magnetic tape or any other means; :(c) The term "processed data" means the products resulting from the processing of the primary data, needed to make such data usable; :(d) The term "analyzed information" means the information resulting from the interpretation of processed data, inputs of data and knowledge from other sources; :(e) The term "remote sensing activities" means the operation of remote sensing space systems, primary data collection and storage stations, and activities in :processing, interpreting and disseminating the processed data. :*The Principles Relevant to the Use of Nuclear Power Sources in Outer Space (1992) :"States launching space objects with nuclear power sources on board shall endeavour to protect individuals, populations and the biosphere against radiological hazards. The design and use of space objects with nuclear power sources on board shall ensure, with a high degree of confidence, that the hazards, in foreseeable operational or accidental circumstances, are kept below acceptable levels. ..." :*The Declaration on International Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space for the Benefit and in the Interest of All States, Taking into Particular Account the Needs of Developing Countries (1996) :"States are free to determine all aspects of their participation in international cooperation in the exploration and use of outer space on an equitable and mutually acceptable basis. All States, particularly those with relevant space capabilities and with programmes for the exploration and use of outer space, should contribute to promoting and fostering international cooperation on an equitable and mutually acceptable basis. In this context, particular attention should be given to the benefit for and the interests of developing countries and countries with incipient space programmes stemming from such international cooperation conducted with countries with more advanced space capabilities. International cooperation should be conducted in the modes that are considered most effective and appropriate by the countries concerned, including, inter alia, governmental and non-governmental; commercial and non-commercial; global, multilateral, regional or bilateral; and international cooperation among countries in all levels of development."


Province of all mankind

The Outer Space Treaty broadly established the concept of space being the ''province of all mankind'', and has been discussed in comparison to the later by the Moon Treaty invoked concept of '' common heritage of humanity'', while overlapping concepts the latter highlights the proclaimed material nature of celestial bodies and the former the proclaimed access to the use of space.


Consensus

The United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space and its Scientific and Technical and Legal Subcommittees operate on the basis of consensus, ''i.e.,'' all delegations from member States must agree on any matter, be it treaty language before it can be included in the final version of a treaty or new items on Committee/Subcommittee's agendas. One reason that the U.N. space treaties lack definitions and are unclear in other respects, is that it is easier to achieve consensus when language and terms are vague. In recent years, the Legal Subcommittee has been unable to achieve consensus on discussion of a new comprehensive space agreement (the idea of which, though, was proposed just by a few member States). It is also unlikely that the Subcommittee will be able to agree to amend the Outer Space Treaty in the foreseeable future. Many space faring nations seem to believe that discussing a new space agreement or amendment of the Outer Space Treaty would be futile and time-consuming, because entrenched differences regarding resource appropriation, property rights and other issues relating to commercial activity make consensus unlikely.


National law

Space law also encompasses national laws, and many countries have passed national space legislation in recent years. The Outer Space Treaty gives responsibility for regulating space activities, including both government and private sector, to the individual countries where the activity is taking place. If a national of, or an organization incorporated in one country launches a spacecraft in a different country, interpretations differ as to whether the home country or the launching country has jurisdiction. The Outer Space Treaty also incorporates the
UN Charter The Charter of the United Nations is the foundational treaty of the United Nations (UN). It establishes the purposes, governing structure, and overall framework of the United Nations System, UN system, including its United Nations System#Six ...
by reference, and requires parties to ensure that activities are conducted in accordance with other forms of international law such as
customary international law Customary international law consists of international legal obligations arising from established or usual international practices, which are less formal customary expectations of behavior often unwritten as opposed to formal written treaties or c ...
(the custom and practice of states). The advent of commercial activities like space mining,
space tourism Space tourism is human space travel for recreational purposes. There are several different types of space tourism, including orbital, suborbital and lunar space tourism. Tourists are motivated by the possibility of viewing Earth from space, ...
, private exploration, and the development of many commercial spaceports, is leading many countries to consider how to regulate private space activities. The challenge is to regulate these activities in a manner that does not hinder or preclude investment, while still ensuring that commercial activities comply with international law. Developing nations are concerned that the spacefaring nations will monopolize space resources. Royalties paid to developing countries is one reason the United States has not ratified the
United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), also called the Law of the Sea Convention or the Law of the Sea Treaty, is an international treaty that establishes a legal framework for all marine and maritime activities. , 169 sov ...
, and why some oppose applying the same principles to outer space. Several nations have enacted or recently updated their national space law, for example,
Luxembourg Luxembourg, officially the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, is a landlocked country in Western Europe. It is bordered by Belgium to the west and north, Germany to the east, and France on the south. Its capital and most populous city, Luxembour ...
in 2017, the
United States The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...
in 2015, and
Japan Japan is an island country in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean off the northeast coast of the Asia, Asian mainland, it is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan and extends from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea ...
in 2008. An overview of Japan's space activities
, 14 August 2018.
Due to the expansion of the domain of space research and allied activities in
India India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area; the List of countries by population (United Nations), most populous country since ...
, the draft Space Activities Bill was introduced in 2017.


Issues


Defining "space"

Many questions arise from the difficulty of defining the term "space". Scholars not only debate its
geographical Geography (from Ancient Greek ; combining 'Earth' and 'write', literally 'Earth writing') is the study of the lands, features, inhabitants, and phenomena of Earth. Geography is an all-encompassing discipline that seeks an understanding o ...
definition (i.e., upper and lower limits), but also whether or not it also encompasses various objects within it (i.e., celestial objects, human beings, man-made devices). Lower limits are generally estimated to be about 50
kilometer The kilometre ( SI symbol: km; or ), spelt kilometer in American and Philippine English, is a unit of length in the International System of Units (SI), equal to one thousand metres (kilo- being the SI prefix for ). It is the preferred mea ...
s. More difficulties arise trying to define the upper bounds of "space", as it would require more inquiry into the nature of the universe and the role of Earth as a planet.


Geostationary orbit allocation


Allocative limitations

Objects in
geostationary orbit A geostationary orbit, also referred to as a geosynchronous equatorial orbit''Geostationary orbit'' and ''Geosynchronous (equatorial) orbit'' are used somewhat interchangeably in sources. (GEO), is a circular orbit, circular geosynchronous or ...
s remain stationary over a point on the Earth due to
gravity In physics, gravity (), also known as gravitation or a gravitational interaction, is a fundamental interaction, a mutual attraction between all massive particles. On Earth, gravity takes a slightly different meaning: the observed force b ...
. There are numerous advantages in being able to use these orbits, mostly due to the unique ability to send radio frequencies to and from
satellite A satellite or an artificial satellite is an object, typically a spacecraft, placed into orbit around a celestial body. They have a variety of uses, including communication relay, weather forecasting, navigation ( GPS), broadcasting, scient ...
s to collect data and send signals to various locations. The United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space has approved seven nonmilitary uses for these orbits:
communication Communication is commonly defined as the transmission of information. Its precise definition is disputed and there are disagreements about whether Intention, unintentional or failed transmissions are included and whether communication not onl ...
s,
meteorology Meteorology is the scientific study of the Earth's atmosphere and short-term atmospheric phenomena (i.e. weather), with a focus on weather forecasting. It has applications in the military, aviation, energy production, transport, agricultur ...
, Earth's resources and environment,
navigation Navigation is a field of study that focuses on the process of monitoring and controlling the motion, movement of a craft or vehicle from one place to another.Bowditch, 2003:799. The field of navigation includes four general categories: land navig ...
and aircraft control, testing of new systems,
astronomy Astronomy is a natural science that studies celestial objects and the phenomena that occur in the cosmos. It uses mathematics, physics, and chemistry in order to explain their origin and their overall evolution. Objects of interest includ ...
, and data relay. The requirement to space these satellites apart means that there is a limited number of orbital "slots" available, thus only a limited number of satellites can be placed in geostationary orbit. This has led to conflict between different countries wishing access to the same orbital slots (countries at the same
longitude Longitude (, ) is a geographic coordinate that specifies the east- west position of a point on the surface of the Earth, or another celestial body. It is an angular measurement, usually expressed in degrees and denoted by the Greek lett ...
but differing latitudes). These disputes are addressed through the ITU allocation mechanism. Countries located at the Earth's equator have also asserted their legal claim to control the use of space above their territory, notably in 1976, when many countries located at the Earth's
equator The equator is the circle of latitude that divides Earth into the Northern Hemisphere, Northern and Southern Hemisphere, Southern Hemispheres of Earth, hemispheres. It is an imaginary line located at 0 degrees latitude, about in circumferen ...
created the Bogota Declaration, in which they asserted their legal claim to control the use of space above their territory, but failed to challenge the Outer Space Treaty in this regard.


Political controversy

Future developments using geostationary orbits may include an expansion of services in telecommunication, broadcasting, and meteorology. As a result, uses for geostationary orbits may stir political controversy. For example, broadcasting and telecommunication services of satellites orbiting above Earth from certain nations may accidentally "spill over" into other nations' territory. This may prompt conflict with nations that wish to restrict access to information and communication. Current and future political and legal concerns allocation may pose may be addressed by international
legislature A legislature (, ) is a deliberative assembly with the legal authority to make laws for a political entity such as a country, nation or city on behalf of the people therein. They are often contrasted with the executive and judicial power ...
s, such as the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space and the International Telecommunication Union.


Environmental protection

More recent discussions focus on the need for the international community to draft and institute a code of space ethics to prevent the destruction of the space environment. Furthermore, the advancement of life in space pertain to questions related to the ethics of biocentrism and
anthropocentrism Anthropocentrism ( ) is the belief that human beings are the central or most important entity on the planet. The term can be used interchangeably with humanocentrism, and some refer to the concept as human supremacy or human exceptionalism. From a ...
, or in other words, determining how much value we place in all living things versus human beings specifically. Currently, researchers in the
bioengineering Biological engineering or bioengineering is the application of principles of biology and the tools of engineering to create usable, tangible, economically viable products. Biological engineering employs knowledge and expertise from a number ...
field are working towards contamination control measures integrated into
spacecraft A spacecraft is a vehicle that is designed spaceflight, to fly and operate in outer space. Spacecraft are used for a variety of purposes, including Telecommunications, communications, Earth observation satellite, Earth observation, Weather s ...
to protect both space and earth's
biosphere The biosphere (), also called the ecosphere (), is the worldwide sum of all ecosystems. It can also be termed the zone of life on the Earth. The biosphere (which is technically a spherical shell) is virtually a closed system with regard to mat ...
.


Environmental space governance

Beyond space debris, rocket launches and the re-entry of reusable components and space debris also cause
air pollution Air pollution is the presence of substances in the Atmosphere of Earth, air that are harmful to humans, other living beings or the environment. Pollutants can be Gas, gases like Ground-level ozone, ozone or nitrogen oxides or small particles li ...
. A study estimated their impacts on climate change and the ozone layer in 2019 and from a theoretical future
space industry Space industry refers to economic activities related to manufacturing components that go into outer space (Earth's orbit or beyond), delivering them to those regions, and related services. Owing to the prominence of satellite-related activiti ...
extrapolated from the " billionaire space race". It concludes that substantial effects from routine
space tourism Space tourism is human space travel for recreational purposes. There are several different types of space tourism, including orbital, suborbital and lunar space tourism. Tourists are motivated by the possibility of viewing Earth from space, ...
should "motivate regulation".


Space Heritage protection

Space Heritage can be understood to mean traces of human existence, together with their archaeological and natural contexts that occur in outer space, including on the Moon and other celestial bodies. Conceptually, this definition can be interpreted to include any human-made material in space and as humanity continues to increase the pace of exploratory and commercial missions to the Moon and beyond. Thus, protocols must be established to manage Space Heritage for two very different reasons: first so that relevant cultural heritage, which is so important to build kinship amongst humans, is preserved; and second to assure that the concept of heritage is not abused by national space actors. Human heritage in outer space includes
Tranquility Base Tranquility Base () is the site on the Moon where, in July 1969, humans landed and walked on a celestial body other than Earth for the first time. On July 20, 1969, Apollo 11 crewmembers Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin landed their Apollo Lunar Mo ...
(
Apollo 11 Apollo 11 was a spaceflight conducted from July 16 to 24, 1969, by the United States and launched by NASA. It marked the first time that humans Moon landing, landed on the Moon. Commander Neil Armstrong and Lunar Module pilot Buzz Aldrin l ...
's lunar landing site) and the robotic and crewed sites that preceded and followed Apollo 11. This also comprises all the
Luna programme The Luna programme (from the Russian word "Moon, Luna" meaning "Moon"), occasionally called ''Lunik'' by western media, was a series of robotic spacecraft missions sent to the Moon by the Soviet Union between 1959 and 1976. The programme acc ...
vehicles, including the
Luna 2 ''Luna 2'' (), originally named the Second Soviet Cosmic Rocket and nicknamed Lunik 2 in contemporaneous media, was the sixth of the Soviet Union's Luna programme spacecraft launched to the Moon, E-1 No.7. It was the first spacecraft Moon landi ...
(first object) and
Luna 9 Luna 9 (Луна-9), internal designation Ye-6 No.13, was an uncrewed space mission of the Soviet Union's Luna programme. On 3 February 1966, the Luna 9 spacecraft became the first spacecraft to achieve a soft landing on the Moon and return ima ...
(first soft-landing) missions, the Surveyor program and the Yutu rovers. Human heritage in outer space also includes satellites like
Vanguard 1 Vanguard 1 (Harvard designation: 1958-Beta 2, COSPAR ID: 1958-002B ) is an American satellite that was the fourth artificial Earth-orbiting satellite to be successfully launched, following Sputnik 1 Sputnik 1 (, , ''Satellite 1''), ...
and Asterix-1 which, though nonoperational, remain in orbit. Currently, these sites are not recognized as cultural heritage or protected in any way under international law. They are addressed in Section 9 of the
Artemis Accords The Artemis Accords are a series of non-binding multilateral arrangements between the United States government and other world governments that elaborates on the norms expected to be followed in outer space. The Accords are related to the Artem ...
which includes an agreement to preserve outer space heritage, which they consider to comprise historically significant human or robotic landing sites, artifacts, spacecraft, and other evidence of activity, and to contribute to multinational efforts to develop practices and rules to do so.


Sovereignty

Current space law has framed space as a common good by calling it the " province of all mankind", and no state has claimed any part of space as their territory, despite practicing the placing of flags. That said it has been argued, that sovereignty is an issue through jurisdiction, which applies to installed facilities and the present actors in space.


Ethics

In space law, ethics extend to topics regarding
space exploration Space exploration is the process of utilizing astronomy and space technology to investigate outer space. While the exploration of space is currently carried out mainly by astronomers with telescopes, its physical exploration is conducted bo ...
, space tourism, space ownership, the militarization of space,
environmental protection Environmental protection, or environment protection, refers to the taking of measures to protecting the natural environment, prevent pollution and maintain ecological balance. Action may be taken by individuals, advocacy groups and governments. ...
, and distinguishing the boundaries of space itself. In March 2023, For All Moonkind announced the formation of the Institute on Space Law and Ethics, a "new nonprofit organization will go beyond advocating for protecting off-world heritage sites and contemplate the ethics around some activities in space that are not fully covered in existing international law."


Interplanetary Human Rights

International space law developed after the Second World War when international
human rights Human rights are universally recognized Morality, moral principles or Social norm, norms that establish standards of human behavior and are often protected by both Municipal law, national and international laws. These rights are considered ...
were established, but both developed independently, and have therefore been identified to be in need to be thought together and expanded, especially with advancing space flight and interest in space settlement. It has been suggested that human rights need to be accompanied in space by a set of fundamental rights. Approached from Crip Legal Theory, the following three such novel fundamental rights have been suggested by the ''Jus Ad Astra'' project: the right to water, the right to a breathable atmosphere and the right to a habitable environment. For such rights state and private
accountability In ethics and governance, accountability is equated with answerability, culpability, liability, and the expectation of account-giving. As in an aspect of governance, it has been central to discussions related to problems in the public secto ...
has become, particular in light of increased private space activity, a growing issue.


Human representation, participation and colonialism

The issue of human representation and participation in space has been a focus of international space law since the beginning of space exploration. In the early stages of international space law, outer space was framed as ''
res communis ''Res communis'' is a concept or doctrine. The expression is a Latin language, Latin term derived from Roman law that preceded today's concepts of the commons and common heritage of mankind. It has relevance in international law and common law. I ...
'', explicitly not as ''
terra nullius ''Terra nullius'' (, plural ''terrae nullius'') is a Latin expression meaning " nobody's land". Since the nineteenth century it has occasionally been used in international law as a principle to justify claims that territory may be acquired ...
'', in the ''Magna Carta of Space'' presented by William A. Hyman in 1966. This concept has since influenced the work of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, and the exploration and use of outer space has been declared as the " province of all mankind". Critics though argue that the sharing of space for all humanity is still lacking, with imperialist views prevailing. Moreover, there are concerns that the current politico-legal regimes and their philosophical underpinnings may favor the imperialist development of space. Consequently, it has been argued that space law is in the need for being reevaluated to ensure the consideration of the relevance and contributions of countries without significant spaceflight, particularly as an answer to colonial histories and colonialism.
Space colonization Space colonization (or extraterrestrial colonization) is the human settlement, settlement or colonization of outer space and astronomical bodies. The concept in its broad sense has been applied to any permanent human presence in space, such ...
has been criticized as a continuation of
imperialism Imperialism is the maintaining and extending of Power (international relations), power over foreign nations, particularly through expansionism, employing both hard power (military and economic power) and soft power (diplomatic power and cultura ...
and
colonialism Colonialism is the control of another territory, natural resources and people by a foreign group. Colonizers control the political and tribal power of the colonised territory. While frequently an Imperialism, imperialist project, colonialism c ...
, leading to
postcolonial Postcolonialism (also post-colonial theory) is the critical academic study of the cultural, political and economic consequences of colonialism and imperialism, focusing on the impact of human control and extractivism, exploitation of colonized pe ...
critiques of colonial decision-making and reasons for labor and land exploitation. There is a growing recognition of the need for inclusive and democratic participation in any space exploration, infrastructure, or habitation. Despite the Outer Space Treaty guaranteeing access to space, space law has faced criticism for not securing international and social inclusiveness, particularly concerning private spaceflight. The often heard declaration that humanity's destiny lies in colonizing the
Solar System The Solar SystemCapitalization of the name varies. The International Astronomical Union, the authoritative body regarding astronomical nomenclature, specifies capitalizing the names of all individual astronomical objects but uses mixed "Sola ...
, particularly in the " billionaire space race", leaving many earthbound problems behind has been criticized as "techno-utopian ..hubris", suggesting "a multilateral agreement to strictly govern and limit expansion into space".


Commercial use

Early discussions regarding space ethics revolved around whether or not the space frontier should be available for use, gaining prominence at the time of the Soviet Union and the United States'
Space Race The Space Race (, ) was a 20th-century competition between the Cold War rivals, the United States and the Soviet Union, to achieve superior spaceflight capability. It had its origins in the ballistic missile-based nuclear arms race between t ...
. In 1967, the "Outer Space Treaty" dictated that all nations in compliance with international regulation are permitted to exploit space. As a result, the
commercial use of space Space economy refers to the set of activities, industries, technologies, services, and resources that generate economic value through the space exploration, understanding, management, and exploitation of outer space. Commercial satellite us ...
is open to exploitation by public and private entities, especially in relation to mining and space tourism. This principle has been the subject of controversy, particularly by those in favor of environmental protection, sustainability, and conservation.


Exploitation

While this field of the law is still in its infancy, it is in an era of rapid change and development. Arguably, the resources of space are infinite. If commercial space transportation becomes widely available, with substantially lower launch costs, then all countries will be able to directly reap the benefits of space resources. In that situation, it seems likely that consensus will be much easier to achieve with respect to commercial development and human settlement of outer space. High costs are not the only factor preventing the economic exploitation of space: it is argued that space should be considered as a pristine environment worthy of protection and conservation, and that the legal regime for space should further protect it from being used as a resource for Earth's needs.Billings, L. (2006) To the Moon, Mars, and beyond: culture, law, and ethics in space-faring societies, Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society, 26(5), 430–437 Debate is also focused on whether space should continue to be legally defined as part of the "Common heritage of mankind", and therefore unavailable for national claims, or whether its legal definition should be changed to allow private property in space. As of 2013, NASA's plans to capture an asteroid by 2021 has raised questions about how space law would be applied in practice. In 2016, the nation of
Luxembourg Luxembourg, officially the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, is a landlocked country in Western Europe. It is bordered by Belgium to the west and north, Germany to the east, and France on the south. Its capital and most populous city, Luxembour ...
has set out a formal legal framework which ensures that private companies engaged in mining resources in space have rights to those resources.


Anthropocentrisms

Spreading humanity's influence far beyond the Earth raises questions about potential other intelligences that have spread through reachable space. Astroethics can consider extraterrestrial having ethics, which may often reflect in laws and understand humanity and its multitude of ethics (which may often reflect in laws and policies) as a part of the universe in a more holistic, possibly even "cosmic", view.


Spacefaring machines

Progress in robotics and artificial intelligence is eroding the need for humans in space with human endeavours often being less cost-effective than robotic missions, with ethical implications for society. Laws as well as adaption-requirements for humans differ in space, which could be a legitimation for crewed – rather than robotic – space-missions.


Contact regime

There have been some proposals as with the ''Magna Carta of Space'' presented by William A. Hyman in 1966 or through the concept of metalaw to introduce legal basics in case of detection of or contact with indigenous extraterrestrial intelligence. As of 2018, there are basically no principles for dealing with a successful confirmed
SETI Seti or SETI may refer to: Astrobiology * SETI, the search for extraterrestrial intelligence. ** SETI Institute, an astronomical research organization *** SETIcon, a former convention organized by the SETI Institute ** Berkeley SETI Research Cent ...
detection.


Rights of nature

In 2021, the ''Declaration of the Rights of the Moon'' was created by a group of "lawyers, space archaeologists and concerned citizens", drawing on precedents in the Rights of Nature movement and the concept of legal personality for non-human entities in space.


Dispute resolution

Space Law also attempts to provide a framework for dispute resolution for matters which arise in space. The following mechanisms are available to the different types of affected parties.


State Actors

* State actors can choose to bring a case before the
International Court of Justice The International Court of Justice (ICJ; , CIJ), or colloquially the World Court, is the only international court that Adjudication, adjudicates general disputes between nations, and gives advisory opinions on International law, internation ...
for breaches under the Liability Convention or the Outer Space Treaty. Strong arguments can also be made for breaches of
customary international law Customary international law consists of international legal obligations arising from established or usual international practices, which are less formal customary expectations of behavior often unwritten as opposed to formal written treaties or c ...
. * Alternatively, state actors can also attempt to resolve disputes between themselves and reach a negotiated settlement. This was the case in the Kosmos 954 incident between Canada and the USSR.


Non-State Actors

Non-state actor A non-state actor (NSA) is an individual or organization that has significant political influence but is not allied to any particular country or state. The interests, structure, and influence of NSAs vary widely. For example, among NSAs are non-pr ...
s are first directed to approach an appropriate state party where one is involved as per the Liability Convention. Where the dispute is private and commercial in nature however, many private companies opt for arbitration. So far, arbitration has primarily been conducted under the
Permanent Court of Arbitration The Permanent Court of Arbitration (PCA) is an intergovernmental organization headquartered at the Peace Palace, in The Hague, Netherlands. Unlike a judicial court in the traditional sense, the PCA provides administrative support in international ...
under the 1976 UNCITRAL Arbitration Rules but the existence of the more specialised "Optional Rules for Arbitration of Disputes Relating to Outer Space Activities" might see a shift in procedural law chosen by the parties in the future. Examples of disputes resolved by arbitration include the cases of ''CC/Devas (Mauritius) Ltd., Devas Employees Mauritius Private Ltd., & Telcom Devas Mauritius Ltd. v. Republic of India'', PCA Case No. 2013-09 and ''Deutsche Telekom AG v. The Republic of India'', PCA Case No. 2014-10. Beside arbitration there is also the possibility of a ''Claims Commission'' as outlined in the Liability Convention. Altogether arbitration has been discussed as an emerging or active field.


Future institutional developments


Open-Ended Working Group (OEWG) on Space Threats 

With no progress in the negotiation of the Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space in 2020, the UN resolution "Reducing Space Threats Through Norms, Rules and Principles of Responsible Behaviours" was signed. Subsequently, the "Open Ended Working Group on Reducing Space Threats Through Norms, Rules and Principles of Responsible Behaviours" was established and found some traction, particularly since the
2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine On 24 February 2022, , starting the largest and deadliest war in Europe since World War II, in a major escalation of the Russo-Ukrainian War, conflict between the two countries which began in 2014. The fighting has caused hundreds of thou ...
.


Future coordination and cooperation

International coordination and cooperation are facilitated by the growing inter-agency International Space Exploration Coordination Group and planned for the
Lunar Gateway The Lunar Gateway, or simply Gateway, is a planned space station which is to be assembled in orbit around the Moon. The Gateway is intended to serve as a communication hub, science laboratory, and habitation module for astronauts as part ...
space station, emulating the cooperation for the ISS.


Legal Profession

There is a growing emphasis on space law in academia. Since 1951, the McGill Faculty of Law in Montreal, Canada has hosted the Institute of Air and Space Law, and offers an LL.M. in Air and Space law. The University of Mississippi School of Law publishes the world's only law journal devoted to space law, the ''Journal of Space Law''. The University of Mississippi School of Law is also the only ABA-accredited law school in the world to offer an LL.M. in Air and Space Law, a Graduate Certificate and a JD Concentration in Air and Space Law. Michelle Hanlon serves as the executive director of the Center for Air and Space Law at the university. In 2008, the University of Nebraska College of Law launched its space, cyber, and telecommunications law program, offering courses and specializations to JD students and an LL.M. in Space, Cyber, and Telecommunications. Over the last decade, other universities have begun to offer specialized courses and programs in the US, UK, France, the Netherlands, and Australia. In September 2012, the Space Law Society (SLS) at the University of Maryland Francis King Carey School of Law was established. A legal resources team united in Maryland, a "Space Science State", with Jorge Rodriguez, Lee Sampson, Patrick Gardiner, Lyra Correa and Juliana Neelbauer as SLS founding members. In 2014, students at American University Washington College of Law founded the school's Space Law Society, with the help of Pamela L. Meredith, space lawyer and adjunct professor of Satellite Communications and Space Law. Efforts to codify the legal regime are mostly represented in the Manual on International Law Applicable to Military Uses of Outer Space (MILAMOS) and the Woomera Manual. The Woomera Manual is a collaborative effort between the
University of Adelaide The University of Adelaide is a public university, public research university based in Adelaide, South Australia. Established in 1874, it is the third-oldest university in Australia. Its main campus in the Adelaide city centre includes many Sa ...
, UNSW Canberra, the
University of Exeter The University of Exeter is a research university in the West Country of England, with its main campus in Exeter, Devon. Its predecessor institutions, St Luke's College, Exeter School of Science, Exeter School of Art, and the Camborne School of ...
, and the University of Nebraska College of Law. Like the San Remo and
Tallinn Tallinn is the capital city, capital and List of cities in Estonia, most populous city of Estonia. Situated on a Tallinn Bay, bay in north Estonia, on the shore of the Gulf of Finland of the Baltic Sea, it has a population of (as of 2025) and ...
Manuals, the goal is to clarify the law as it relates to outer space. In 2018, two space lawyers - Christopher Hearsey and Nathan Johnson - founded the Space Court Foundation, a 501(c)(3) educational nonprofit corporation that promotes and supports space law and policy education and the rule of law. The Space Court Foundation produces educational materials and scholarship through the administration of two major projects: Stellar Decisis and the Space Court Law Library. The foundation engages in partnerships and collaborations that help grow greater awareness of space law and how disputes in space may be resolved as humans venture farther from Earth in the not too distant future.


International efforts to inform progressive development of International Space Law

The McGill Institute of Air and Space Law is leading multiple international collaborative projects to contribute towards clarifying international space law and promote rules-based global order. One such project announced in 2017, being led by Prof. Ram S. Jakhu, is the McGill Manual on International Law Applicable to Military Uses of Outer Space (MILAMOS Project) which aims to clarify existing rules of international law as they apply to military uses of outer space. The MILAMOS Project aims to contribute to "a future where all space activities are conducted in accordance with the international rules-based global order, without disrupting, and preferably contributing to, the sustainable use of outer space for the benefit of present and future generations of all humanity." Another international collaborative project announced in 2020, being led by Prof. Ram S. Jakhu, Bayar Goswami and Kuan-Wei (David) Chen, is the McGill Encyclopedia of International Space Law (at SpaceLawPedia.com) which aims to "fulfill the need for an objectively curated online resource on key subject-matters of international space law. With the input of a team of global practitioners and academics in the field of international space law and general international law, the SpaceLawPedia aims to be the definitive source of peer-reviewed reference material for anyone practising, conducting research on or teaching international space law." For a deeper awareness and understanding of issues arising from the ongoing scramble for the Moon, the Open Lunar Foundation has been working with a broad range of professionals to find in an open and responsible way approaches which find and address issues. This work has produced the "Lunar Policy Handbook" under its "Moon Dialogs" program, the lunar activity registry proposal "Bright Moon", and a program for approaches for ressource collection called "Breaking Ground".


Global space agency

International context can be traced all the way back to the
International Geophysical Year The International Geophysical Year (IGY; ), also referred to as the third International Polar Year, was an international scientific project that lasted from 1 July 1957 to 31 December 1958. It marked the end of a long period during the Cold War w ...
in the course of which the first orbital flight was conducted, and early work on establishing international cooperation in space. Even a joint US-USSR space program was actively for a short time negotiated. Today's international space laws are the most remaining remnants of these early advances in space cooperation. The end of the
Cold War The Cold War was a period of global Geopolitics, geopolitical rivalry between the United States (US) and the Soviet Union (USSR) and their respective allies, the capitalist Western Bloc and communist Eastern Bloc, which lasted from 1947 unt ...
was presented as an opportunity, allowing today's
International Space Station The International Space Station (ISS) is a large space station that was Assembly of the International Space Station, assembled and is maintained in low Earth orbit by a collaboration of five space agencies and their contractors: NASA (United ...
and fueling academic suggestions like an "interspace" design for the establishment of an international space agency. With increased
space environment Space environment is a branch of astronautics, aerospace engineering and space physics that seeks to understand and address conditions existing in space that affect the design and operation of spacecraft. A related subject, space weather, deals wit ...
al awareness a "Framework Convention on the Protection of the Space Environment" and yet again an "International Space Agency" has been academically suggested, while having seen practically no advances. Despite the absence of an international space agency, international cooperation in space is being widely pursued, with the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) and International Space Exploration Coordination Group (ISECG) being the most high-level coordination groups, the latter produces the ''Global Exploration Roadmap''.


See also

*
Artemis Accords The Artemis Accords are a series of non-binding multilateral arrangements between the United States government and other world governments that elaborates on the norms expected to be followed in outer space. The Accords are related to the Artem ...
*
Common heritage of mankind Common heritage of humanity (also termed the common heritage of mankind, common heritage of humankind or common heritage principle) is a principle of international law that holds the defined territorial areas and elements of humanity's common heri ...
* Science-based legislation * Science-based policy * Politics of outer space * Ernst Fasan * Institute of Space and Telecommunications Law * Metalaw * Moon Treaty * NewSpace *
Outer Space Treaty The Outer Space Treaty, formally the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, is a Multilateralism, multilateral treaty that forms the bas ...
* Politics of the International Space Station * Space advocacy * Space archaeology, the law as related to preserving cultural heritage from space sites *
Space policy Space policy is the political decision-making process for, and application of, public policy of a state (or association of states) regarding spaceflight and uses of outer space, both for civilian (scientific and commercial) and military purposes ...
* Title 51 of the United States Code * Space traffic management


References


Further reading

* Ann Finkbeiner, "Orbital Aggression: How do we prevent war in space?", ''
Scientific American ''Scientific American'', informally abbreviated ''SciAm'' or sometimes ''SA'', is an American popular science magazine. Many scientists, including Albert Einstein and Nikola Tesla, have contributed articles to it, with more than 150 Nobel Pri ...
'', vol. 323, no. 5 (November 2020), pp. 50–57. * Xiao-Shan Yap and Rakhyun E. Kim, " Towards Earth-Space Governance in a Multi-Planetary Era", ''Earth System Governance'', vol. 16 (2023), 100173.


External links

*
Res Communis
– University of Mississippi National Center for Remote Sensing, Air and Space Law
blog A blog (a Clipping (morphology), truncation of "weblog") is an informational website consisting of discrete, often informal diary-style text entries also known as posts. Posts are typically displayed in Reverse chronology, reverse chronologic ...
about air and space law developments
Overview of space law
at the
Foreign Office Foreign may refer to: Government * Foreign policy, how a country interacts with other countries * Ministry of Foreign Affairs, in many countries ** Foreign Office, a department of the UK government ** Foreign office and foreign minister * United ...
website
''Journal of Space Law''
at the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs website
Space Security Portal
at the
United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research The United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research (UNIDIR) is a research institute of the United Nations focused on disarmament and international security. It was established in 1980 by the United Nations General Assembly with the stated ...
*
Institute of Space and Telecommunications Law
& Master's degree in Space Activities and Telecommunications Law
Space Law - MOOC.fi courses
{{Authority control
Law Law is a set of rules that are created and are enforceable by social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior, with its precise definition a matter of longstanding debate. It has been variously described as a science and as the ar ...
Law Law is a set of rules that are created and are enforceable by social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior, with its precise definition a matter of longstanding debate. It has been variously described as a science and as the ar ...
Law Law is a set of rules that are created and are enforceable by social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior, with its precise definition a matter of longstanding debate. It has been variously described as a science and as the ar ...
Law Law is a set of rules that are created and are enforceable by social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior, with its precise definition a matter of longstanding debate. It has been variously described as a science and as the ar ...