STS-134 International Space Station after undocking

Space diplomacy refers to the integration of the collaboration of the knowledge, technology, and legislation involved in

science diplomacy Science diplomacy describes how scientific exchanges and the cross-border collaboration of scientists or scientific organizations can perform diplomatic functions in the context of international relations. Most often this diplomacy happens as part o ...

as applied to the expanded

exploration of space Space exploration is the process of utilizing astronomy and space technology to investigate outer space. While the exploration of space is currently carried out mainly by astronomers with telescopes, its physical exploration is conducted bo ...

. As diplomatic relationships are integral to the mitigation of various health, scientific, natural or technological issues across nations, space diplomacy is a growing field in which various nations can come to a consensus on what is fair when it comes to the exploration and commercialization of space travel.

Background

Space travel is a necessary resource for people around the world, especially when considering the use of satellites in areas like research or telecommunications. With the exploration of space, major issues are merging, such as

environmental concerns Environmental issues are disruptions in the usual function of ecosystems. Further, these issues can be caused by humans (human impact on the environment) or they can be natural. These issues are considered serious when the ecosystem cannot recov ...

and

pollution Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that cause harm. Pollution can take the form of any substance (solid, liquid, or gas) or energy (such as radioactivity, heat, sound, or light). Pollutants, the component ...

or the monopolization of space travel. Space diplomacy allows for the consideration of such concerns, as officials, scientists, environmental activists, and private corporations can come together in order for both national and private space exploration to prosper. As a term, space diplomacy dates back to at least the 1960s. Space diplomacy policy and legislation have evolved to accommodate novel space activities and challenges. Initially, from 1959 to 1980, U.S.-Soviet

Cold War The Cold War was a period of global Geopolitics, geopolitical rivalry between the United States (US) and the Soviet Union (USSR) and their respective allies, the capitalist Western Bloc and communist Eastern Bloc, which lasted from 1947 unt ...

considerations drove the emergence of the majority of space diplomacy in the form of the slew of binding international agreements that continue to form the basis of the majority of today's space governance. Then, from 1980 to 2000, the rise in the number of both space activities actors and space actors slowed the development of next generation governance. This resulted in weaker, more voluntary diplomatic outputs. This trend continued from 2000, as actors like the European Union and Japan developed their own space diplomacy via instruments like the E.U.'s

Galileo Galileo di Vincenzo Bonaiuti de' Galilei (15 February 1564 – 8 January 1642), commonly referred to as Galileo Galilei ( , , ) or mononymously as Galileo, was an Italian astronomer, physicist and engineer, sometimes described as a poly ...

satellite navigation system, which went live in 2016, and Japan's Basic Space Law of 2008, while actors like China and the U.S. struggled to find common ground despite China's increasing capacity to reach into space. Today's picture is of increasingly complex space diplomacy, with governments and civil society keen to influence space development despite lacking strong international norms, laws, or standards that might inform such governance, a goal pursued by the

United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs The United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA) is an office of the U.N. Secretariat that promotes and facilitates peaceful international cooperation in outer space. It works to establish or strengthen the legal and regulatory fram ...

. The development of future space diplomacy for 2030 and beyond will have to accommodate these trends, which are likely to continue in terms of increasing numbers of activities and actors, for instance through greater involvement of civil society and Global South actors in the attempt to develop supportive legislative and policy solutions. Crucially, in order for space diplomacy to become effective in allowing the sustainable development of space, according to agencies like the U.N., governments must better incorporate civil society in the creation of norms and rules. An increase in the diversity of activities and actors may also result from the U.N.-facilitated Human Space Technology Initiative, launched in 2010 and instrumental in promoting access to space education, space data, and space technology and research facilities, as well as direct access to space via, for example, the U.N. facilitated launch of

CubeSat A CubeSat is a class of small satellite with a form factor of cubes. CubeSats have a mass of no more than per unit,, url=https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5418c831e4b0fa4ecac1bacd/t/5f24997b6deea10cc52bb016/1596234122437/CDS+REV14+2020-07-3 ...

International space law

Established international laws and regulations

Outer space is one of the four identified "

global commons Global commons is a concept to describe international, supranational, and global resource domains in which common-pool resources are found. They are "areas that lie outside of the political reach of any one nation State". Global commons include th ...

", along with the

ocean The ocean is the body of salt water that covers approximately 70.8% of Earth. The ocean is conventionally divided into large bodies of water, which are also referred to as ''oceans'' (the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian Ocean, Indian, Southern Ocean ...

, the

atmosphere An atmosphere () is a layer of gases that envelop an astronomical object, held in place by the gravity of the object. A planet retains an atmosphere when the gravity is great and the temperature of the atmosphere is low. A stellar atmosph ...

, and

Antarctica Antarctica () is Earth's southernmost and least-populated continent. Situated almost entirely south of the Antarctic Circle and surrounded by the Southern Ocean (also known as the Antarctic Ocean), it contains the geographic South Pole. ...

. Although the definition of what is a global domain is changing with time and inclusivity, these four domains representing aspects of the environment are the "

common heritage of mankind Common heritage of humanity (also termed the common heritage of mankind, common heritage of humankind or common heritage principle) is a principle of international law that holds the defined territorial areas and elements of humanity's common heri ...

," and as such they are resources that should be shared with all the countries of Earth. In other words, no nation has a sole claim, and the resources associated with these domains should be preserved for everyone. Current international regulations to protect space as a global common and for space travel have been set by the

Outer Space Treaty The Outer Space Treaty, formally the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, is a Multilateralism, multilateral treaty that forms the bas ...

of 1967, which governs that space exploration and the use of

celestial bodies An astronomical object, celestial object, stellar object or heavenly body is a naturally occurring physical entity, association, or structure that exists within the observable universe. In astronomy, the terms ''object'' and ''body'' are of ...

are to be used for “peaceful purposes” and for scientific research, as established in Resolution 2222 (XXI). The Treaty states that no country can achieve sovereign control over regions of space. Consequently, the Treaty requires that space should be used as a resource of all people.

Space law Space law is the body of law governing space-related activities, encompassing both international and domestic agreements, rules, and principles. Parameters of space law include space exploration, liability for damage, weapons use, rescue efforts ...

itself is relatively new as a branch of

international law International law, also known as public international law and the law of nations, is the set of Rule of law, rules, norms, Customary law, legal customs and standards that State (polity), states and other actors feel an obligation to, and generall ...

, encompassing the need to designate the access to, and freedom to explore, space. Especially with the establishment of the

Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space The United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) is a United Nations committee whose main task is to review and foster international cooperation in the peaceful uses of outer space, as well as to consider legal issues a ...

(COPUOS) in 1959, participating countries within the

United Nations The United Nations (UN) is the Earth, global intergovernmental organization established by the signing of the Charter of the United Nations, UN Charter on 26 June 1945 with the stated purpose of maintaining international peace and internationa ...

have worked to regulate further human expansion into space, via five main international treaties of

space law Space law is the body of law governing space-related activities, encompassing both international and domestic agreements, rules, and principles. Parameters of space law include space exploration, liability for damage, weapons use, rescue efforts ...

. These treaties include the

Rescue Agreement The Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts, the Return of Astronauts and the Return of Objects Launched into Outer Space, also referred to as the Rescue Agreement is an international agreement setting forth rights and obligations of states concer ...

, the

Space Liability Convention The Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects, also known as the Space Liability Convention, is a treaty from 1972 that expands on the liability rules created in the Outer Space Treaty of 1967. In 1978, the crash o ...

, the Registration Convention, and the

Moon Treaty The Agreement Governing the Activities of States on the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, Yet, it is still possible for a nation to participate in space military activities, such as the launching of a nuclear missile through space. Aside from

private spaceflight Private spaceflight is any spaceflight development that is not conducted by a government agency, such as NASA or ESA. During the early decades of the Space Age, the government space agencies of the Soviet Union and United States pionee ...

or rover launches in the field of research, nations around the world have recognized the potential to use the domain of space for military defense. For example, the

United States The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...

and

Russia Russia, or the Russian Federation, is a country spanning Eastern Europe and North Asia. It is the list of countries and dependencies by area, largest country in the world, and extends across Time in Russia, eleven time zones, sharing Borders ...

, two of the main actors in the current space race, have not signed the Moon Agreement and so have not agreed to the stipulations of the peaceful treatment of celestial bodies. Signed under the

Trump administration Presidency of Donald Trump may refer to: * First presidency of Donald Trump, the United States presidential administration from 2017 to 2021 * Second presidency of Donald Trump, the United States presidential administration since 2025 See also * ...

in December 2019, the

Space Force A space force is a military branch of a nation's armed forces that conducts military operations in outer space and space warfare. The world's first space force was the Russian Space Forces, established in 1992 as an independent military service. ...

represents a new branch of the

Defense Department A ministry of defence or defense (see spelling differences), also known as a department of defence or defense, is the part of a government responsible for matters of defence and military forces, found in states where the government is divided ...

and served to establish formal military jurisdiction in the Earth's orbit. The release of the ''2020 Defense Space Strategy'' represents another effort by the United States to expand its national military and defense into space. Other nations have also been involved in security considerations, such as the effort by the

European Union The European Union (EU) is a supranational union, supranational political union, political and economic union of Member state of the European Union, member states that are Geography of the European Union, located primarily in Europe. The u ...

to establish its own policies towards space security. This collaboration of European countries builds upon current shared policies while prioritizing the sustainability and security of space travel.

Prevention of the militarization of space

The members of the UN have been discussing the provisions of the Outer Space Treaty since the 1980s. In 1981, the

Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space The Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space document is a 1981 UN resolutionSee ''Official Records of the General Assembly'', A/RES/36/97 C, 9 December 1981. (Alves 1991, I:5 note 22) that reaffirms the fundamental principles of the 1967 Outer S ...

was presented by the

UN General Assembly The United Nations General Assembly (UNGA or GA; , AGNU or AG) is one of the six principal organs of the United Nations (UN), serving as its main deliberative, policymaking, and representative organ. Currently in its 79th session, its powers, ...

and has been discussed during the

Conference on Disarmament The Conference on Disarmament (CD) is a multilateral disarmament forum established by the international community to negotiate arms control and disarmament agreements based at the Palais des Nations in Geneva. The Conference meets annually in ...

as a resolution that reestablishes the principles of peace outlined in the original Outer Space Treaty. However, due to the clash between the priorities of the UN members, discussions for a

initiative have never come to full fruition. In favour of such hard legislation, in 2008, both

China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. With population of China, a population exceeding 1.4 billion, it is the list of countries by population (United Nations), second-most populous country after ...

and

drafted and proposed the Prevention of an Arms Race in Space Treaty, which would serve to reaffirm the principles of the Outer Space Treaty while also preventing the militarization of space. Working on a softer policy-driven path, in 2019, the U.N. Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space Working Group on the Long-term Sustainability of Outer Space Activities finally reached consensus among its 84 member states on 21 'Guidelines for the Long-term Sustainability of Outer Space Activities.' The following year, to specifically counter an arms race in outer space, the U.N. General Assembly adopted Resolution 75/36
Reducing Space Threats through Norms, Rules and Principles of Responsible Behaviours
Issues like dual-use technology and the efficacy of an agreed set of principles versus the long time a formal U.N. treaty might take to be signed and ratified, and especially policed and verified, continue to pose problems.

Space privatization

Over the past few decades, the space environment has dramatically changed as private companies entered the

space exploration Space exploration is the process of utilizing astronomy and space technology to investigate outer space. While the exploration of space is currently carried out mainly by astronomers with telescopes, its physical exploration is conducted bo ...

domain, meaning the sector is no longer the sole preserve of governments and their space agencies, such as

NASA The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA ) is an independent agencies of the United States government, independent agency of the federal government of the United States, US federal government responsible for the United States ...

and the

European Space Agency The European Space Agency (ESA) is a 23-member International organization, international organization devoted to space exploration. With its headquarters in Paris and a staff of around 2,547 people globally as of 2023, ESA was founded in 1975 ...

(ESA). Unlike the space race that occurred between the United States and Russia, this new era of the space race is accelerated by the competition of customers. Private companies in many nations have been involved in the satellite market for many years, and their efforts have paved the way for entrepreneurs to develop their own vision and contribution to space exploration.

Privatization in the United States

The U.S. space industry is composed of four sectors: (1) defense (2) intelligence, (3) commercial, and (4) civil space sectors. Space privatization is associated with the commercial space sector. For the most part, the U.S. national launch infrastructure has been privatized or leased to companies such as

SpaceX Space Exploration Technologies Corp., commonly referred to as SpaceX, is an America, American space technology company headquartered at the SpaceX Starbase, Starbase development site in Starbase, Texas. Since its founding in 2002, the compa ...

Blue Origin Blue Origin Enterprises, L.P. is an American space technology company headquartered in Kent, Washington. The company operates the suborbital New Shepard rocket and the heavy-lift New Glenn rocket. In addition to producing engines for its own ...

Virgin Galactic Virgin Galactic Holdings, Inc. is a British-American spaceflight company founded by Richard Branson and the Virgin Group conglomerate, which retains an 11.9% stake through Virgin Investments Limited. It is headquartered in California, and opera ...

Bigelow Aerospace Bigelow Aerospace was an American space design and manufacturing company which ceased operations in 2020. It was an aeronautics and outer space technology company which manufactured and developed expandable space station modules. Bigelow Aero ...

, and the

Sierra Nevada Corporation Sierra Nevada Corporation (also styled SNC) is an American aerospace, defense, electronics, engineering and manufacturing corporation that specializes in aircraft modification, integration and other space technologies. The corporation contracts ...

. These competitors are focused on reducing the cost of access to space, for example through the reuse of launchers and spacecraft, making space accessible to people and not just trained astronauts.

SpaceX

was created in 2002 by entrepreneur, engineer, and inventor

Elon Musk Elon Reeve Musk ( ; born June 28, 1971) is a businessman. He is known for his leadership of Tesla, SpaceX, X (formerly Twitter), and the Department of Government Efficiency (DOGE). Musk has been considered the wealthiest person in th ...

with the mission of taking humans to Mars and revolutionizing space technology. Over the past two decades, the company specialized in the manufacture and launch of rockets that directly competed with the

United Launch Alliance United Launch Alliance, LLC (ULA) is an American launch service provider formed in December 2006 as a joint venture between Lockheed Martin Space and Boeing Defense, Space & Security. The company designs, assembles, sells and launches rockets ...

, the contract holder for the launch of

and

Department of Defense The United States Department of Defense (DoD, USDOD, or DOD) is an executive department of the U.S. federal government charged with coordinating and supervising the six U.S. armed services: the Army, Navy, Marines, Air Force, Space Force, ...

rocket launches.

was the first private company to dock a ship at the International Space Station (ISS), with the development of the

Falcon 9 Falcon 9 is a Reusable launch system#Partial reusable launch systems, partially reusable, two-stage-to-orbit, medium-lift launch vehicle designed and manufactured in the United States by SpaceX. The first Falcon 9 launch was on June 4, 2010, an ...

launch and

Dragon spacecraft Dragon is a family of spacecraft developed and produced by American private space transportation company SpaceX. The first variant, later named Dragon 1, flew 23 cargo missions to the International Space Station (ISS) between 2010 and 2020 be ...

designed the

Falcon Heavy Falcon Heavy is a super heavy-lift launch vehicle with partial reusability that can carry cargo into Earth orbit and beyond. It is designed, manufactured and launched by American aerospace company SpaceX. The rocket consists of a center core ...

to not only launch future satellites into space and carry cargo, but to launch people to destinations like the Moon, or even Mars.

's ability to design a successful orbital transport system and

launch success at one-third the price of a traditional

-contracted launch demonstrates the private-sector capability to fulfill many current

functions at a fraction of the cost. Such achievement frees up

to concentrate on its core research and exploration missions in space and allows the private sector to invest in a self-sustaining space-based industry.

Blue Origin

was founded by Amazon's CEO,

Jeff Bezos Jeffrey Preston Bezos ( ;; and Robinson (2010), p. 7. ; born January 12, 1964) is an American businessman best known as the founder, executive chairman, and former president and CEO of Amazon, the world's largest e-commerce and clou ...

, in September 2000, with the goal of making space travel more accessible and cheaper through reusable launch systems. Unlike

aims to target the space tourism industry. The company development a vertical launch vehicle, the

New Shepard New Shepard is a Reusable launch vehicle, fully reusable Sub-orbital spaceflight, sub-orbital launch vehicle developed for space tourism by Blue Origin. The vehicle is named after Alan Shepard, who became the List of space travelers by nationali ...

, that could reach an altitude of 100 km and descend back to Earth by landing vertically.

has also created the New Glenn rocket, a reusable

heavy-lift launch vehicle A heavy-lift launch vehicle (HLV) is an orbital launch vehicle capable of lifting payloads between (by NASA classification) or between (by Russian classification) into low Earth orbit (LEO).50t payloads" Heavy-lift launch vehicles often carry ...

that can carry a payload to orbit. Both innovations demonstrate the competition that is occurring in the private sector. Similar to

's intention with

Bezos Jeffrey Preston Bezos ( ;; and Robinson (2010), p. 7. ; born January 12, 1964) is an American businessman best known as the founder, executive chairman, and former president and CEO of Amazon, the world's largest e-commerce and cloud co ...

aims to make innovations that will allow future generations to inhabit space. Specifically,

's goal is to promote future generations to construct a space station in orbit around Earth, perpetually in motion to produce

artificial gravity Artificial gravity is the creation of an inertial force that mimics the effects of a gravitational force, usually by rotation. Artificial gravity, or rotational gravity, is thus the appearance of a centrifugal force in a rotating frame of ...

, where humans would re-create cities, national parks, and even famous sites.

Virgin Galactic

Founded by technology and retail entrepreneur

Richard Branson Sir Richard Charles Nicholas Branson (born 18 July 1950) is an English business magnate who co-founded the Virgin Group in 1970, and controlled 5 companies remaining of once more than 400. Branson expressed his desire to become an entrepreneu ...

in 2004,

is a private space company that describes itself as “the world's first commercial space line.”

has been planned to carry six passengers at a time into sub-orbital space and provide them six minutes of weightlessness in the course of a two and a half our flight. The technology differs from

and

because the launch into space was not from the ground, but from a jet airplane. This ship flies to an altitude of about 18 km and releases a smaller, rocket powered spacecraft called

SpaceShip Two The Scaled Composites Model 339 SpaceShipTwo (SS2) was an air-launched suborbital spaceplane type designed for space tourism. It was manufactured by The Spaceship Company, a California-based company owned by Virgin Galactic. SpaceShipTwo was c ...

, which is propelled to an altitude of about 100 km. Like

and

aims to transform the space sector by making space exploration easier for people.

Bigelow Aerospace

was founded by hotel magnate Robert Bigelow in 1999. The company wanted to provide a low-cost,

low Earth orbit A low Earth orbit (LEO) is an geocentric orbit, orbit around Earth with a orbital period, period of 128 minutes or less (making at least 11.25 orbits per day) and an orbital eccentricity, eccentricity less than 0.25. Most of the artificial object ...

space station that is accessible to the commercial sectors. To accomplish this, the company started to create habitats that can expand after being deployed in space. The places would provide some protection from solar and cosmic radiation, space debris, and other elements. Biglelow first licensed an expandable module technology from

after the agency canceled a project called

TransHab TransHab was a program pursued by NASA in the late 1990s to develop the technology for expandable habitats inflated by air in space. TransHab was intended as a replacement for the existing rigid International Space Station crew Habitation Modul ...

, which had developed it. The company then launched two spacecraft, Genesis 1 in 2006 and Genesis 2 in 2007, on Dnepr rockets from Russia, to demonstrate that expandable module technology. The spacecraft demonstrated that the modules were stable and maintained air pressure. In 2013, the company signed a contract with

to build a similar expandable module, called the

Bigelow Expandable Activity Module The Bigelow Expandable Activity Module (BEAM) is an experimental inflatable space habitat, expandable International Space Station#Pressurised modules, space station module developed by Bigelow Aerospace, under contract to NASA, for testing as a ...

(BEAM), and install it on the

ISS The International Space Station (ISS) is a large space station that was assembled and is maintained in low Earth orbit by a collaboration of five space agencies and their contractors: NASA (United States), Roscosmos (Russia), ESA (Europe), ...

. In April 2016, this module was successfully deployed outside the

International Space Station The International Space Station (ISS) is a large space station that was Assembly of the International Space Station, assembled and is maintained in low Earth orbit by a collaboration of five space agencies and their contractors: NASA (United ...

. The company is currently developing another module, the

B330 The B330 (previously known as the Nautilus space complex module and BA 330) was an inflatable space habitat privately developed by Bigelow Aerospace from 2010 until 2020. The design was evolved from NASA's TransHab habitat concept. B330 was to ...

, in the hope of creating outposts in Earth orbit, lunar orbit, and on surface of the Moon, which could be visited by paying customers. In March 2020, however,

laid off its workforce, and the company's future ambitions are unknown.

Sierra Nevada Corporation

Founded in 1963 by John Chisholm, the

(SNC) is a privately held electronic systems provider and systems integrator specializing in microsatellites, telemedicine, and commercial orbital transportation services. SNC is notable for its

Dream Chaser Dream Chaser is an American reusable lifting-body spaceplane developed by Sierra Space. Originally intended as a crewed vehicle, the Dream Chaser Space System is set to be produced after the Dream Chaser Cargo System cargo variant is opera ...

, a planned commercial crew spacecraft, which will ferry up to seven astronauts and cargo to and from the

. SNC was able to transition from small satellites to crewed spacecraft by partnering with companies such as

Draper Laboratory Draper Laboratory is an American non-profit research and development organization, headquartered in Cambridge, Massachusetts; its official name is The Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, Inc. The laboratory specializes in the design, development, an ...

Langley Research Center The Langley Research Center (LaRC or NASA Langley), located in Hampton, Virginia, near the Chesapeake Bay front of Langley Air Force Base, is the oldest of NASA's field centers. LaRC has focused primarily on aeronautical research but has also ...

Boeing The Boeing Company, or simply Boeing (), is an American multinational corporation that designs, manufactures, and sells airplanes, rotorcraft, rockets, satellites, and missiles worldwide. The company also provides leasing and product support s ...

, and

. Nevertheless, SNC hopes to use this mini shuttle, the

, to take a lead in space tourism and commerce real estate. In 2021, SNC will use the

Vulcan Centaur Vulcan Centaur is a heavy-lift launch vehicle developed and operated by United Launch Alliance (ULA). It is a two-stage-to-orbit launch vehicle consisting of the Vulcan first stage and the Centaur second stage. Replacing ULA's Atlas V and Del ...

rocket as the launch vehicle for

's cargo configuration. Furthermore, other products created by SNC includes spacecraft actuators that power the Mars rovers and hybrid rocket technologies that powered the first commercial astronaut to space.

International space privatization

Space privatization is not only becoming prominent in the U.S.: competition amongst space programs in Russia, Europe, Japan, India, and China has been growing significantly. The European Space Agency was established before the alliance between Russia and the U.S. in 1975, following many years of independent aeronautical engineering research by individual nations. Similarly, Chinese, Japanese and Indian space agencies began in the 1960s. A number of smaller countries, including the United Arab Emirates, also are participating in the space competition. China became the third nation to independently launch a human into orbit, in 2003, and its capabilities have since grown. China's visions include sending people to the Moon and building a space station as well as creating its own robotic explorer. Meanwhile, India launched its first unmanned mission to Mars in late 2013, and its probe entered Mars's orbit in September 2014. Since then, the

Indian Space Research Organization The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO ) is India's national space agency, headquartered in Bengaluru, Karnataka. It serves as the principal research and development arm of the Department of Space (DoS), overseen by the Prime Minister o ...

has reached an agreement with

on subsequent explorations of Mars. China and the United Arab Emirates successfully sent spacecraft to orbit Mars in February 2021, which was when

landed its rover there. The advancements of transportation infrastructure by both national and international private players have created an environment conducive to developing space-based industries that use commerce to greatly increase the quality of life and decrease the cost of living. Examples of space-based activities that have commercial potential include, but are not limited to, tapping space-based clean energy sources, mining asteroids for useful raw materials, developing safe venues for scientific experiments,

upcycling Upcycling, also known as creative reuse, is the process of transforming by-products, waste materials, useless, or unwanted products into new materials or products perceived to be of greater quality, such as artistic value or environmental value ...

/sequestering hazardous but valuable debris currently in space, tapping sources of water already in space, to decouple into oxygen and hydrogen for space fuels and oxidizers and to provide radiation shielding mass, and so forth. Collaboration between both public and private space companies in which the private sector develops the space industry and government parties and agencies, like

, buy transport and other key services, such as on-orbit facilities, as customers of the private providers.

, as an example, has already begun buying some space transportation in this manner. Such actions are leading to a comprehensive advancement in space.

Environmental consequences

Due to the lack of sufficient established international space laws able to create boundaries and define the regulation of space, space exploration and private ownership of space incur negative consequences for Earth's environment and for space itself. Rocket and space launches have been steady since the

space race The Space Race (, ) was a 20th-century competition between the Cold War rivals, the United States and the Soviet Union, to achieve superior spaceflight capability. It had its origins in the ballistic missile-based nuclear arms race between t ...

, starting from 1955. However, the recent space race between billionaires Elon Musk, Jeff Bezos and Richard Branson have significantly increased the number of space launches: in 2019 alone, there were 443 launches. Space launches provide in-depth knowledge of space, create new markets, and spur space diplomacy; however, such a high increase in launches has several negative effects for Earth.

Carbon dioxide emissions

Space launches pose a problem for the environment because it can emit a very high quantity of

carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide is a chemical compound with the chemical formula . It is made up of molecules that each have one carbon atom covalent bond, covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms. It is found in a gas state at room temperature and at norma ...

, depending on the size of the spacecraft or rocket, into the environment. Carbon dioxide occurs naturally in the atmosphere; however, a significantly increased amount of CO₂ pollutes the air and traps radiation and heat from the sun. The build up of carbon dioxide prevents the Earth from cooling at night and causes

climate change Present-day climate change includes both global warming—the ongoing increase in Global surface temperature, global average temperature—and its wider effects on Earth's climate system. Climate variability and change, Climate change in ...

. The Falcon 9 launched by SpaceX in 2018, burned 112,184 kilograms of kerosene, which released 336,552 kg of carbon dioxide into the Earth's atmosphere. In 2020 alone, there were a total of 104 successful space launches, with each launch adding significantly to the CO₂ buildup. Furthermore, because no strict space regulations exist for environmental maintenance, the amount of carbon dioxide emitted is left unregulated, causing environmental issues such as

greenhouse gas emissions Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from human activities intensify the greenhouse effect. This contributes to climate change. Carbon dioxide (), from burning fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum, oil, and natural gas, is the main cause of climate chan ...

. Recently, there has been a surge in space companies professing awareness of the issues, and some are actively innovating ways to combat these large emissions. For example, Virgin Galactic announced it will burn fuel for only 60 seconds to limit the environmental effect.

Black carbon accumulation

Launching kerosene-fueled rockets and spaceships adds

black carbon Black carbon (BC) is the light-absorbing refractory form of Chemical_element, elemental carbon remaining after pyrolysis (e.g., charcoal) or produced by incomplete combustion (e.g., soot). Tihomir Novakov originated the term black carbon in ...

, also known as soot, to the upper layer of the atmosphere. Black carbon is a particle that absorbs solar energy, and in comparison to carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, it absorbs more than one million times of energy than CO₂. The accumulation of black carbon that absorbs solar energy in the atmosphere can warm the atmosphere and so can significantly increase the rate of global warming. In addition, black carbon not only stays in the atmosphere but precipitates back onto the Earth while lowering the reflecting power of surfaces, important to maintaining a cool temperature. With the accumulation of black carbon, absorption replaces reflection. The increased absorption targets snow covered regions such as the

Arctic ice cap The Arctic ice pack is the sea ice cover of the Arctic Ocean and its vicinity. The Arctic ice pack undergoes a regular seasonal cycle in which ice melts in spring and summer, reaches a minimum around mid-September, then increases during fall a ...

s. Because of the absorbance of solar energy in the ice, the Arctic ice cap is melting at an alarming rate. Sea levels are rising as a consequence, which threatens many cities and even countries. In response, some space companies, such as

Orbex Orbital Express Launch Ltd., or Orbex, is a United Kingdom-based aerospace company that is developing a small commercial orbital rocket called Prime. Orbex is headquartered in Forres, Moray, in Scotland and has subsidiaries in Denmark and Germany ...

, plan on reducing black carbon in order to be more space conscious.

Space junk

Space junk Space debris (also known as space junk, space pollution, space waste, space trash, space garbage, or cosmic debris) are defunct human-made objects in spaceprincipally in Earth orbitwhich no longer serve a useful function. These include dere ...

is human made debris in the form of the remnants of rockets and spaceships; there exists no international agreement on the best way to remove it. This is problematic as four thousand active and inactive satellites in space are in danger of being struck by space debris. Space equipment affected in this way, as well as space junk itself, can plummet towards Earth and harm its environment and people. Removing such space junk is problematic because with the increasing amount of space equipment deployed by increasingly numerous countries, it is difficult to know if one piece of space junk targeted for removal is actually another country's active space property. Although the

has developed space debris mitigation guidelines where space launches should have a plan to remove the junk produced within 25 years, it is voluntary and is followed by only 40% of all space missions.

The Space2030 Agenda

Rooted in the realization that space is a frontier transcending national boundaries and interests, with benefits that should be accessible to all countries, The Space2030 Agenda underscores the importance of international cooperation and the peaceful use of outer space. The Space2030 Agenda, created by the United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA) in partnership with

UN Member States The United Nations comprise sovereign states and the world's largest intergovernmental organization. All members have equal representation in the UN General Assembly. The Charter of the United Nations defines the rules for admission of ...

, aims to harness the potential of space science, technology, applications, and infrastructure for the benefit of humanity. It is designed as a key instrument for global sustainable development, fostering peaceful cooperation among the UN's Member States. The agenda encompasses space usage by government, intergovernmental, and non-governmental organizations, including private enterprises and industries from each UN Member State. By integrating space technologies within the broader framework of the United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), the agenda aims to leverage space technology and exploration to support sustainable development worldwide. It aims to address critical issues such as climate change, global health, disaster risk reduction, and socioeconomic development. A joint study titled 'Space4SDGs' between UNOOSA and the European Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) Agency discovered that space technology benefits all 17 SDGs. This agenda aims to make the benefits of space exploration and technology accessible to all countries, contributing to humanity's betterment. It’s objectives and implementation plan are structured around the four overarching pillars of ''space economy'', ''space society, space accessibility'', and ''space diplomacy'', highlighting the multifaceted role of space in modern society. However, the implementation of the Space2030 Agenda may face various challenges, necessitating the creation of a more comprehensive space sustainability framework and regulatory structure. This is essential for establishing a circular space economy that operates within Earth's safe and just boundaries while simultaneously unlocking space's potential for everyone.

Four Overarching Pillars

There are four overarching pillars which under-gird The Space2030 Agenda and inform the strategic objectives within the document. These are: Space Diplomacy: Fostering space diplomacy through partnerships and strengthening global collaboration in the peaceful utilization of outer space. Space Economy: Boosting the economic advantages derived from space and reinforcing the space sector's impact as a key contributor to a sustainable economy. Space Society: Promoting the societal advantages of space-related endeavors and maximizing the application of space technologies and services to enhance the quality of life on Earth. Space Accessibility: Enhancing the availability of space for everyone, guaranteeing that nations worldwide can gain socioeconomic advantages from the use of space science, technology, and space-derived data and products.

Objectives

The primary objectives of the Space2030 Agenda are organized around the four pillars, and these are: Objective 1: Boost the economic advantages gained from space and reinforce the space sector's role as a key catalyst for sustainable development. Objective 2: Utilize the capabilities of space to address daily challenges and capitalize on space-related advancements to enhance the quality of life. Objective 3: Improve the accessibility of space for everyone and guarantee that all nations can reap socioeconomic advantages from the applications of space science and technology, as well as from space-derived data, information, and products, thus aiding in the fulfillment of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Objective 4: Forge alliances and bolster global collaboration for the peaceful exploration of outer space, as well as in the international management of activities in outer space.

Implementation

UNOOSA will play a central role in facilitating the implementation of the Space2030 Agenda. This will be carried out in collaboration with

Member States A member state is a state that is a member of an international organization or of a federation or confederation. Since the World Trade Organization (WTO) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) include some members that are not sovereign states ...

, international organizations, the private sector, academia, and civil society.

Key Initiatives

The Space2030 Agenda drives several key implementation initiatives to realize its goals, including a global partnership that includes international cooperation on space exploration, data sharing, and joint research. It also emphasizes the role of space tools in supporting the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) through applications in environmental monitoring, agriculture, health, and disaster management. Additionally, the development of policy and legal frameworks is critical for fostering the peaceful use of outer space and promoting responsible conduct among nations and private entities engaged in space activities.

Progress Reviews

The Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) is tasked with monitoring the progress of The Space2030 Agenda. It includes regular agenda items for Member States and permanent observers to exchange experiences and best practices. A midterm review is scheduled for 2025, followed by a final review in 2030, where the committee will report to the United Nations General Assembly on the implementation outcomes.

Challenges

The implementation of the Space2030 Agenda faces significant hurdles, including geopolitical tensions, resource limitations, and the complexities of space exploration. A major issue is ensuring equitable access to space, as disparities in technological advancement among nations persist. The growth of the space sector, driven by private enterprise, has led to increased space data usage for societal benefits but also exacerbated challenges like space debris, orbital congestion and increasing greenhouse gas emissions. This situation creates a 'space sustainability paradox,' where efforts to achieve Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) through space could become counterproductive due to environmental impacts on Earth and in space. Current regulations are insufficient, risking a '

tragedy of the commons The tragedy of the commons is the concept that, if many people enjoy unfettered access to a finite, valuable resource, such as a pasture, they will tend to overuse it and may end up destroying its value altogether. Even if some users exercised vo ...

' in space, where unregulated exploitation leads to resource depletion. Sustainable space development must consider three pillars: 1) addressing global challenges through space; 2) preserving space as a resource; and 3) protecting Earth from the impacts of space activities. Without comprehensive international policies and regulation, the long-term accessibility and safety of space are jeopardized, underlining the need for immediate action to ensure space's sustainable use.

Future Direction

In the future the Space2030 Agenda imagines a world in which space exploration and technology play a key role in driving progress on the SDGs and promoting peaceful relationships between nations. The agenda encourages ongoing innovation, adaptation to emerging space challenges, and sustained commitment from the global community to realize the full potential of space for humanity.

External links

Astropolitics

Boosting Space Diplomacy at State

Foreign Policy: Space

Space diplomacy and research

Space diplomacy
DiploFoundation topic page

References

Space exploration Space law Science diplomacy