Science fiction Science fiction (sometimes shortened to Sci-Fi or SF) is a genre of speculative fiction which typically deals with imagination, imaginative and futuristic concepts such as advanced science and technology, space exploration, time travel, Paral ...

and

fantasy Fantasy is a genre of speculative fiction involving magical elements, typically set in a fictional universe and sometimes inspired by mythology and folklore. Its roots are in oral traditions, which then became fantasy literature and drama ...

have been part of mainstream

Russian literature Russian literature refers to the literature of Russia and its émigrés and to Russian-language literature. The roots of Russian literature can be traced to the Middle Ages, when epics and chronicles in Old East Slavic were composed. By the Ag ...

since the 18th century. Russian fantasy developed from the centuries-old traditions of

Slavic mythology Slavic mythology or Slavic religion is the Religion, religious beliefs, myths, and ritual practices of the Slavs before Christianisation of the Slavs, Christianisation, which occurred at various stages between the 8th and the 13th century. The So ...

and

folklore Folklore is shared by a particular group of people; it encompasses the traditions common to that culture, subculture or group. This includes oral traditions such as Narrative, tales, legends, proverbs and jokes. They include material culture, r ...

. Russian science fiction emerged in the mid-19th century and rose to its

golden age The term Golden Age comes from Greek mythology, particularly the '' Works and Days'' of Hesiod, and is part of the description of temporal decline of the state of peoples through five Ages, Gold being the first and the one during which the Go ...

during the Soviet era, both in cinema and literature, with writers like the

Strugatsky brothers The brothers Arkady Natanovich Strugatsky (russian: Аркадий Натанович Стругацкий; 28 August 1925 – 12 October 1991) and Boris Natanovich Strugatsky ( ru , Борис Натанович Стругацкий; 14 A ...

Kir Bulychov Kir Bulychev (russian: Кир Булычёв ''Kir Bulychyov 18 October 1934 – 5 September 2003) is a pen name of Igor Vsevolodovich Mozheiko (И́горь Все́володович Може́йко), a Soviet Russian science fiction writer, c ...

, and Mikhail Bulgakov, among others. Soviet filmmakers, such as

Andrei Tarkovsky Andrei Arsenyevich Tarkovsky ( rus, Андрей Арсеньевич Тарковский, p=ɐnˈdrʲej ɐrˈsʲenʲjɪvʲɪtɕ tɐrˈkofskʲɪj; 4 April 1932 – 29 December 1986) was a Russian filmmaker. Widely considered one of the greates ...

, also produced many science fiction and fantasy films. With the fall of the

Iron Curtain The Iron Curtain was the political boundary dividing Europe into two separate areas from the end of World War II in 1945 until the end of the Cold War in 1991. The term symbolizes the efforts by the Soviet Union (USSR) to block itself and its s ...

, modern Russia experienced a renaissance of fantasy. Outside modern Russian borders, there are a significant number of Russophone writers and filmmakers from Ukraine, Belarus and Kazakhstan, who have made a notable contribution to the genres.

Terminology

In the Russian language, fantasy, science fiction, horror and all other related genres are considered a part of a larger

umbrella term In linguistics, semantics, general semantics, and ontologies, hyponymy () is a semantic relation between a hyponym denoting a subtype and a hypernym or hyperonym (sometimes called umbrella term or blanket term) denoting a supertype. In other ...

, фантастика (''fantastika''), roughly equivalent to " speculative fiction", and are less divided than in the West. The Russian term for science fiction is научная фантастика (''nauchnaya fantastika''), which can be literally translated as "scientific fantasy" or "scientific speculative fiction". Since there was very little adult-oriented fantasy fiction in Soviet times, Russians did not use a specific term for this genre until Perestroika. Although the Russian language has a literal translation for 'fantasy', фантазия (''fantaziya''), the word refers to a dream or imagination, not literary genre. Today, Russian publishers and literary critics use direct English transcription, фэнтези (''fentezi'').

Gothic Gothic or Gothics may refer to: People and languages *Goths or Gothic people, the ethnonym of a group of East Germanic tribes **Gothic language, an extinct East Germanic language spoken by the Goths **Crimean Gothic, the Gothic language spoken b ...

and supernatural fiction are often referred to as мистика (''mistika'', Russian for

mysticism Mysticism is popularly known as becoming one with God or the Absolute, but may refer to any kind of ecstasy or altered state of consciousness which is given a religious or spiritual meaning. It may also refer to the attainment of insight in u ...

Imperial period

18th and early 19th centuries

While science fiction did not emerge in Russia as a coherent genre until the early 20th century, many of its aspects, such as utopia or imaginary voyage, are found in earlier Russian works.

Fedor Dmitriev-Mamonov Fyodor, Fedor (russian: Фёдор) or Feodor is the Russian form of the name "Theodore" meaning “God’s Gift”. Fedora () is the feminine form. Fyodor and Fedor are two English transliterations of the same Russian name. It may refer to: Giv ...

's anti-clerical ''A Philosopher Nobleman. The Allegory'' (Дворянин-философ. Аллегория, 1769) is considered prototypical to science fiction. It is a

voltaire François-Marie Arouet (; 21 November 169430 May 1778) was a French Enlightenment writer, historian, and philosopher. Known by his '' nom de plume'' M. de Voltaire (; also ; ), he was famous for his wit, and his criticism of Christianity—es ...

an ''conte philosophique'' influenced by ''

Micromégas ''Le Micromégas'' is a 1752 novella by the French philosopher and satirist Voltaire. Along with his story "Plato's Dream", it is an early example in the literary genre of science fiction and has its place in the development of the history o ...

''.

Utopia A utopia ( ) typically describes an imaginary community or society that possesses highly desirable or nearly perfect qualities for its members. It was coined by Sir Thomas More for his 1516 book '' Utopia'', describing a fictional island socie ...

was a major genre of early Russian speculative fiction. The first utopia in Russian was a short story by

Alexander Sumarokov Alexander Petrovich Sumarokov (russian: Алекса́ндр Петро́вич Сумаро́ков; , Moscow – , Moscow) was a Russian poet and playwright who single-handedly created classical theatre in Russia, thus assisting Mikhail Lomonos ...

, "A Dream of Happy Society" (1759). Two early

utopia A utopia ( ) typically describes an imaginary community or society that possesses highly desirable or nearly perfect qualities for its members. It was coined by Sir Thomas More for his 1516 book '' Utopia'', describing a fictional island socie ...

s in form of

imaginary voyage ''Imaginary Voyage'' is a studio album by French jazz fusion artist Jean-Luc Ponty. It features guitarist Daryl Stuermer and bassist Tom Fowler (both of whom had played on Ponty’s previous album), along with keyboardist Allan Zavod and drumme ...

are

Vasily Levshin Vasily Alekseyevich Lyovshin (russian: Василий Алексеевич Лёвшин; July 17, 1746 – August 10, 1826) was a Russian writer. Born in Smolensk, he wrote on agricultural and economic subjects and was close to Nikolay Novikov's c ...

's ''Newest Voyage'' (1784, also the first Russian "flight" to the Moon) and

Mikhail Shcherbatov Prince Mikhailo Mikhailovich Shcherbatov (russian: Михаи́л Миха́йлович Щерба́тов; 22 July 1733 – 12 December 1790) was a leading ideologue and exponent of the Russian Enlightenment, on the par with Mikhail Lomonosov a ...

's ''Journey to the Land of Ophir''. Pseudo-historical

heroic romance Heroic romances refers to a distinguished class of imaginative literature that flourished in the 17th century, principally in France. Characteristics Today, heroic romances are more often grouped into the larger romance genre than discussed indivi ...

s in classical settings (modeled on Fenelon's ''Telemaque'') by

Fyodor Emin Fyodor, Fedor (russian: Фёдор) or Feodor is the Russian form of the name "Theodore" meaning “God’s Gift”. Fedora () is the feminine form. Fyodor and Fedor are two English transliterations of the same Russian name. It may refer to: Giv ...

Mikhail Kheraskov Mikhail Matveyevich Kheraskov (russian: Михаи́л Матве́евич Хера́сков; – ) was Russian poet and playwright. A leading figure of the Russian Enlightenment, Kheraskov was regarded as the most important Russian poet by ...

Pavel Lvov Pavel (Bulgarian, Russian, Serbian and Macedonian: Павел, Czech, Slovene, Romanian: Pavel, Polish: Paweł, Ukrainian: Павло, Pavlo) is a male given name. It is a Slavic cognate of the name Paul (derived from the Greek Pavlos). Pa ...

and Pyotr Zakharyin were also utopian. ''Ancient Night of the Universe'' (1807), an

epic poem An epic poem, or simply an epic, is a lengthy narrative poem typically about the extraordinary deeds of extraordinary characters who, in dealings with gods or other superhuman forces, gave shape to the mortal universe for their descendants. ...

by Semyon Bobrov, is the first work of

Russian Cosmism Russian cosmism, also cosmism, is a Philosophical movement, philosophical and cultural movement that emerged in Russia at the turn of the 19th century, and again, at the beginning of the 20th century. At the beginning of the 20th century, there w ...

. Some of

Faddei Bulgarin Thaddeus Venediktovich Bulgarin (russian: Фаддей Венедиктович Булгарин; Polish Jan Tadeusz Krzysztof Bułharyn, – ), was a Russian writer, journalist and publisher of Polish ancestry. In addition to his newspaper ...

's tales are set in the future, others exploited themes of

hollow earth The Hollow Earth is a concept proposing that the planet Earth is entirely hollow or contains a substantial interior space. Notably suggested by Edmond Halley in the late 17th century, the notion was disproven, first tentatively by Pierre Bougue ...

and space flight, as did

Osip Senkovsky Osip Ivanovich Senkovsky (russian: О́сип Ива́нович Сенко́вский), born Józef Julian Sękowski ( in Antagonka, near Vilnius – in Saint Petersburg), was a Polish-Russian orientalist, journalist, and entertainer. Life S ...

's ''Fantastic Voyages of Baron Brambeus''. Authors of Gothic stories included

Aleksandr Bestuzhev Alexander Alexandrovich Bestuzhev ( rus, Алекса́ндр Алекса́ндрович Бесту́жев, p=bʲɪˈstuʐɨf, a=Ru-Alyeksandr Alyeksandrovich Byestuzhyev.oga; (), was a Russian writer and Decembrist. After the Decembrist rev ...

with his German ''couleur locale'',

Sergey Lyubetsky Sergey may refer to: * Sergey (name), a Russian given name (including a list of people with the name) * Sergey, Switzerland, a municipality in Switzerland * ''Sergey'' (wasp), a genus in subfamily Doryctinae The Doryctinae or doryctine wasps a ...

Vladimir Olin Vladimir may refer to: Names * Vladimir (name) for the Bulgarian, Croatian, Czech, Macedonian, Romanian, Russian, Serbian, Slovak and Slovenian spellings of a Slavic name * Uladzimir for the Belarusian version of the name * Volodymyr for the Ukr ...

, Alexey K. Tolstoy,

Elizaveta Kologrivova Elizaveta is a village in the municipality of Bălți in the north of Moldova. Area: 26.77 km2, population: 3,523 at the 2004 Moldovan Census The 2004 Moldovan census was carried out between October 5 and October 12, 2004. The breakaway ...

and

Mikhail Lermontov Mikhail Yuryevich Lermontov (; russian: Михаи́л Ю́рьевич Ле́рмонтов, p=mʲɪxɐˈil ˈjurʲjɪvʲɪtɕ ˈlʲɛrməntəf; – ) was a Russian Romantic writer, poet and painter, sometimes called "the poet of the Caucasu ...

("Stoss"). By the mid-19th century

s to space had become popular

chapbook A chapbook is a small publication of up to about 40 pages, sometimes bound with a saddle stitch. In early modern Europe a chapbook was a type of printed street literature. Produced cheaply, chapbooks were commonly small, paper-covered bookl ...

s, such as ''Voyage to the Sun and Planet Mercury and All the Visible and Invisible Worlds'' (1832) by Dmitry Sigov, ''Correspondence of a Moonman with an Earthman'' (1842) by Pyotr Mashkov, ''Voyage to the Moon in a Wonderful Machine'' (1844) by Semyon Dyachkov and ''Voyage in the Sun'' (1846) by Demokrit Terpinovich. Popular literature used fantastic motifs like demons (

Rafail Zotov Rafail Mikhaylovich Zotov (russian: Рафаил Михайлович Зотов, 1795, — September 29, 1871) was a Russian playwright, novelist, journalist, translator and theatre critic. The playwright Vladimir Zotov was his son. Born in Psk ...

's ''Qin-Kiu-Tong''),

invisibility Invisibility is the state of an object that cannot be seen. An object in this state is said to be ''invisible'' (literally, "not visible"). The phenomenon is studied by physics and perceptual psychology. Since objects can be seen by light in ...

(Ivan Shteven's ''Magic Spectacles'') and shrinking men (

Vasily Alferyev Vasili, Vasily, Vasilii or Vasiliy ( Russian: Василий) is a Russian masculine given name of Greek origin and corresponds to '' Basil''. It may refer to: * Vasili I of Moscow Grand Prince from 1389–1425 *Vasili II of Moscow Grand Prince ...

's ''Picture'').

Hoffmann Hoffmann is a German surname. People A * Albert Hoffmann (1846–1924), German horticulturist * Alexander Hoffmann (born 1975), German politician *Arthur Hoffmann (politician) (1857–1927), Swiss politician and member of the Swiss Federal Coun ...

's fantastic tales influenced east European writers including Ukrainian writer

Nikolay Gogol Nikolai Vasilyevich Gogol; uk, link=no, Мико́ла Васи́льович Го́голь, translit=Mykola Vasyliovych Hohol; (russian: Яновский; uk, Яновський, translit=Yanovskyi) ( – ) was a Russian novelist, ...

, Russian writers

Antony Pogorelsky Antony Pogorelsky (Russian: Анто́ний Погоре́льский) is a pen name of Alexey Alexeyevich Perovsky (Russian Алексе́й Алексе́евич Перо́вский), (1787–) a Russian prose writer. He was a natural son o ...

, Nikolay Melgunov, Vladimir Karlgof,

Nikolai Polevoy Nikolai Alekseevich Polevoy ( rus, Никола́й Алексе́евич Полево́й, r=Nikoláy Alekséevich Polevóy, ― ) was a controversial Russian editor, writer, translator, and historian; his brother was the critic and journalist ...

Aleksey Tomofeev Alexey, Alexei, Alexie, Aleksei, or Aleksey (russian: Алексе́й ; bg, Алексей ) is a Russian and Bulgarian male first name deriving from the Greek ''Aléxios'' (), meaning "Defender", and thus of the same origin as the Latin ...

Konstantin Aksakov Konstantin Sergeyevich Aksakov (russian: Константи́н Серге́евич Акса́ков) (10 April 1817 – 19 December 1860) was a Russian critic and writer, one of the earliest and most notable Slavophiles. He wrote plays, social c ...

and

Vasily Ushakov Vasili, Vasily, Vasilii or Vasiliy ( Russian: Василий) is a Russian masculine given name of Greek origin and corresponds to '' Basil''. It may refer to: * Vasili I of Moscow Grand Prince from 1389–1425 *Vasili II of Moscow Grand Prince ...

. Supernatural folk tales were stylized by

Orest Somov Orest Mikhailovich Somov ( Russian and uk, Орест Михайлович Сомов, romanized Ukrainian standard: ''Orest Mykhailovych Somov/Somiv'') ( – ) was a Russian romantic writer of Ukrainian origin. He studied at Kharkiv Univer ...

Mikhail Zagoskin Mikhail Nikolayevich Zagoskin (russian: Михаил Николаевич Загоскин; July 25, 1789 – July 5, 1852) was a Russian writer of social comedies and historical novels. Zagoskin was born in the village of Mokshansky District, Ram ...

and Nikolay Bilevich.

Vladimir Odoevsky Prince Vladimir Fyodorovich Odoyevsky (russian: Влади́мир Фёдорович Одо́евский, p=ɐˈdojɪfskʲɪj; Владимир Федорович Одоевский. Библиографический указатель. Энц ...

, a romantic writer influenced by Hoffmann, wrote on his vision of the future and scientific progress as well as many

tales.

Alexander Veltman Alexander Fomich Veltman (russian: Алекса́ндр Фоми́ч Ве́льтман) ( — ) was one of the most successful Russian prose writers of the 1830s and 1840s, "popular for various modes of Romantic fiction — historical, Gothic ...

, along with his folk romances (''

Koschei Koschei ( rus, Коще́й, r=Koshchey, p=kɐˈɕːej), often given the epithet "the Immortal", or "the Deathless" (russian: Коще́й Бессме́ртный), is an archetypal male antagonist in Russian folklore. The most common feature of ...

the Immortal'', 1833) and hoffmanesque satiric tales (''New Yemelya or, Metamorphoses'', 1845), in 1836 published ''The forebears of Kalimeros: Alexander, son of Philip of Macedon'', the first Russian novel to feature

time travel Time travel is the concept of movement between certain points in time, analogous to movement between different points in space by an object or a person, typically with the use of a hypothetical device known as a time machine. Time travel is a ...

. In the book, the main character rides to ancient Greece on a

hippogriff The hippogriff, or sometimes spelled hippogryph ( el, Ἱππόγρυπας), is a legendary creature with the front half of an eagle and the hind half of a horse. It was invented by Ludovico Ariosto in his ''Orlando Furioso'', at the beginning o ...

to meet

Aristotle Aristotle (; grc-gre, Ἀριστοτέλης ''Aristotélēs'', ; 384–322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical Greece, Classical period in Ancient Greece. Taught by Plato, he was the founder of the Peripatet ...

and

Alexander the Great Alexander III of Macedon ( grc, Ἀλέξανδρος, Alexandros; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), commonly known as Alexander the Great, was a king of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon. He succeeded his father Philip II to ...

. In ''Year 3448'' (1833), a

Heliodor Beryl ( ) is a mineral composed of beryllium aluminium silicate with the chemical formula Be3Al2Si6O18. Well-known varieties of beryl include emerald and aquamarine. Naturally occurring, hexagonal crystals of beryl can be up to several meter ...

ic love romance set in the future, a traveler visits an imaginary country Bosphorania and sees social and technological advances of the 35th century. File:Портрет Гоголя.jpg,

Nikolai Gogol Nikolai Vasilyevich Gogol; uk, link=no, Мико́ла Васи́льович Го́голь, translit=Mykola Vasyliovych Hohol; (russian: Яновский; uk, Яновський, translit=Yanovskyi) ( – ) was a Russian novelist, ...

File:Kiprensky Pushkin.jpg,

Alexander Pushkin Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin (; rus, links=no, Александр Сергеевич ПушкинIn pre-Revolutionary script, his name was written ., r=Aleksandr Sergeyevich Pushkin, p=ɐlʲɪkˈsandr sʲɪrˈɡʲe(j)ɪvʲɪtɕ ˈpuʂkʲɪn, ...

File:Aleksey K Tolstoy.jpg, Alexey K. Tolstoy File:Odoevsky vladimir.jpg,

File:Bulgarin Faddei.jpg,

Late 19th - early 20th century

Second half of the 19th century saw the rise of

realism Realism, Realistic, or Realists may refer to: In the arts * Realism (arts), the general attempt to depict subjects truthfully in different forms of the arts Arts movements related to realism include: *Classical Realism *Literary realism, a mov ...

. However, fantasies with a scientific rationale by

Nikolai Akhsharumov Nikolai or Nikolay is an East Slavic variant of the masculine name Nicholas. It may refer to: People Royalty * Nicholas I of Russia (1796–1855), or Nikolay I, Emperor of Russia from 1825 until 1855 * Nicholas II of Russia (1868–1918), or Nik ...

and

Nikolai Vagner Nikolai Petrovich Wagner (russian: Николай Петрович Вагнер; 30 July 1829, – 3 April 1907) was a Russian zoologist, editor, essayist and writer. Biography Nikolai Wagner was born at the Bogoslovsky Zavod in Perm Governor ...

stand out during this period, as well as

Ivan Turgenev Ivan Sergeyevich Turgenev (; rus, links=no, Ива́н Серге́евич Турге́невIn Turgenev's day, his name was written ., p=ɪˈvan sʲɪrˈɡʲe(j)ɪvʲɪtɕ tʊrˈɡʲenʲɪf; 9 November 1818 – 3 September 1883 ( Old Style da ...

's "mysterious tales" and

Vera Zhelikhovsky Vera Zhelikhovsky (russian: Ве́ра Петро́вна Желихо́вская, uk, Віра Желіховська Петрівна; April 29, 1835 – May 17, 1896), sometimes transliterated as Vera Jelihovsky, was a Russian writer, mostly ...

's occult fiction. Mikhail Mikhailov's story "Beyond History" (published in 1869), a pre-

Darwinian Darwinism is a theory of biological evolution developed by the English naturalist Charles Darwin (1809–1882) and others, stating that all species of organisms arise and develop through the natural selection of small, inherited variations that ...

fantasy on the descent of man, is an early example of

prehistoric fiction Prehistoric fiction is a literary genre in which the story is set in the period of time prior to the existence of written record, known as prehistory. As a fictional genre, the realistic description of the subject varies, without necessarily a ...

. Fictional accounts of prehistoric men were written by anthropologists and popular science writers ("Prehistoric Man", 1890, by

Wilhelm Bitner Wilhelm Wilhelmovich Bitner ( Russian: Вильге́льм Вильге́льмович Би́тнер, styled V. V. Bitner in English, 1865–1921) was a Russian publisher, editor, bookseller, and popularizer of science. Biography Bitner wa ...

, ''The First Artist'', 1907, by Dmitry Pakhomov, ''Tale of a Mammoth and an Ice-Man'', 1909, by Pyotr Dravert, ''Dragon's Victims'', 1910, by

Vladimir Bogoraz Vladimir Germanovich Bogoraz (russian: Влади́мир Ге́рманович Богора́з), who was born Natan Mendelevich Bogoraz (russian: Ната́н Ме́нделевич Богора́з) and used the literary pseudonym N. A. Tan ( ...

Mikhail Saltykov-Shchedrin Mikhail Yevgrafovich Saltykov-Shchedrin ( rus, Михаи́л Евгра́фович Салтыко́в-Щедри́н, p=mʲɪxɐˈil jɪvˈɡrafəvʲɪtɕ səltɨˈkof ɕːɪˈdrʲin; – ), born Mikhail Yevgrafovich Saltykov and known during ...

's satires use a fantastic and

grotesque Since at least the 18th century (in French and German as well as English), grotesque has come to be used as a general adjective for the strange, mysterious, magnificent, fantastic, hideous, ugly, incongruous, unpleasant, or disgusting, and thus ...

element (''The History of a Town'' and prose fables). The plot of ''Animal Mutiny'' (published 1917) by historian

Nikolay Kostomarov Mykola Ivanovych Kostomarov or Nikolai Ivanovich Kostomarov (russian: Никола́й Ива́нович Костома́ров, ; uk, Микола Іванович Костомаров, ; May 16, 1817, vil. Yurasovka, Voronezh Governorate, R ...

is similar to that of

Orwell Eric Arthur Blair (25 June 1903 – 21 January 1950), better known by his pen name George Orwell, was an English novelist, essayist, journalist, and critic. His work is characterised by lucid prose, social criticism, opposition to totalitari ...

's ''

Animal Farm ''Animal Farm'' is a beast fable, in the form of satirical allegorical novella, by George Orwell, first published in England on 17 August 1945. It tells the story of a group of farm animals who rebel against their human farmer, hoping to crea ...

''. Some of

Fyodor Dostoevsky Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky (, ; rus, Фёдор Михайлович Достоевский, Fyódor Mikháylovich Dostoyévskiy, p=ˈfʲɵdər mʲɪˈxajləvʲɪdʑ dəstɐˈjefskʲɪj, a=ru-Dostoevsky.ogg, links=yes; 11 November 18219 ...

's short works also use fantasy: ''

The Dream of a Ridiculous Man "The Dream of a Ridiculous Man" (russian: Сон смешного человека, ''Son smeshnovo cheloveka'') is a short story by Fyodor Dostoevsky. It chronicles the experiences of a man who decides that there is nothing of any value in the wo ...

'' (about the corruption of the

n society on another planet), a

doppelgänger A doppelgänger (), a compound noun formed by combining the two nouns (double) and (walker or goer) (), doppelgaenger or doppelganger is a biologically unrelated look-alike, or a double, of a living person. In fiction and mythology, a doppel ...

novella '' The Double: A Petersburg Poem'',

mesmer Franz Anton Mesmer (; ; 23 May 1734 – 5 March 1815) was a German physician with an interest in astronomy. He theorised the existence of a natural energy transference occurring between all animated and inanimate objects; this he called "anim ...

ic ''The Landlady'', and a comic

horror Horror may refer to: Arts, entertainment, and media Genres *Horror fiction, a genre of fiction **Japanese horror, Japanese horror fiction ** Korean horror, Korean horror fiction *Horror film, a film genre *Horror comics, comic books focusing on ...

story ''

Bobok "Bobok" (russian: Бобок, ''Bobok'') is a short story by Fyodor Dostoevsky that first appeared in 1873 in his self-published '' Diary of a Writer''. The story consists largely of a dialogue between recently deceased occupants of graves in a ce ...

''. Dostoevsky's magazine ''Vremya'' was first to publish Russian translations of

Edgar Allan Poe Edgar Allan Poe (; Edgar Poe; January 19, 1809 – October 7, 1849) was an American writer, poet, editor, and literary critic. Poe is best known for his poetry and short stories, particularly his tales of mystery and the macabre. He is wide ...

's stories in 1861.

Alexander Kondratyev Alexander is a male given name. The most prominent bearer of the name is Alexander the Great, the king of the Ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia who created one of the largest empires in ancient history. Variants listed here are Aleksandar, Al ...

's prose included mythological novel ''Satyress'' (1907) and collection of mythological stories ''White Goat'' (1908), both based on

Greek myths A major branch of classical mythology, Greek mythology is the body of myths originally told by the ancient Greeks, and a genre of Ancient Greek folklore. These stories concern the origin and nature of the world, the lives and activities of d ...

. ''Journeys and Adventures of Nicodemus the Elder'' (1917) by

Aleksey Skaldin Alexey, Alexei, Alexie, Aleksei, or Aleksey (russian: Алексе́й ; bg, Алексей ) is a Russian language, Russian and Bulgarian language, Bulgarian male first name deriving from the Greek language, Greek ''Aléxios'' (), meaning "D ...

is a

Gnostic Gnosticism (from grc, γνωστικός, gnōstikós, , 'having knowledge') is a collection of religious ideas and systems which coalesced in the late 1st century AD among Jewish and early Christian sects. These various groups emphasized pe ...

fantasy.

Utopias

Nikolai Chernyshevsky Nikolay Gavrilovich Chernyshevsky ( – ) was a Russian literary and social critic, journalist, novelist, democrat, and socialist philosopher, often identified as a utopian socialist and leading theoretician of Russian nihilism. He was t ...

's influential ''

What Is to Be Done? ''What Is to Be Done? Burning Questions of Our Movement'' is a political pamphlet written by Russian revolutionary Vladimir Lenin (credited as N. Lenin) in 1901 and published in 1902. Lenin said that the article represented "a skeleton plan to ...

'' (1863) included a utopian dream of the far future, which became a prototype for many socialist utopias. A noted example is the duology by Marxist philosopher

Alexander Bogdanov Alexander Aleksandrovich Bogdanov (russian: Алекса́ндр Алекса́ндрович Богда́нов; – 7 April 1928), born Alexander Malinovsky, was a Russian and later Soviet physician, philosopher, science fiction writer, and ...

, '' Red Star'' and ''Engineer Menni''. Some plays of another Marxist,

Anatoly Lunacharsky Anatoly Vasilyevich Lunacharsky (russian: Анато́лий Васи́льевич Лунача́рский) (born Anatoly Aleksandrovich Antonov, – 26 December 1933) was a Russian Marxist revolutionary and the first Bolshevik Soviet People' ...

, propose his philosophical ideas in fantastic disguise. Other socialist utopias include ''Diary of André'' (1897) by pseudonymous A. Va-sky, ''On Another Planet'' (1901) by Porfiry Infantyev, and ''Spring Feast'' (1910) by Nikolay Oliger.

Alexander Kuprin Aleksandr Ivanovich Kuprin (russian: link=no, Александр Иванович Куприн; – 25 August 1938) was a Russian writer best known for his novels ''The Duel'' (1905)Kuprin scholar Nicholas Luker, in his biography ''A ...

wrote a short story of the same kind, ''Toast'' (1907). Among others, Vladimir Solovyov wrote ''Tale of the Anti-Christ'' (1900), an ecumenical utopia. ''Earthly Paradise'' (1903) by

Konstantin Mereschkowski Konstantin Sergeevich Mereschkowski ( rus, Константи́н Серге́евич Мережко́вский, p=mʲɪrʲɪˈʂkofskʲɪj; – 9 January 1921) was a prominent Russian biologist and botanist, active mainly around Kazan, Ta ...

is an anthropological utopia. ''Great War Between Men and Women'' (1913) by Sergey Solomin and ''Women Uprisen and Defeated'' (1914) by Polish writer

Ferdynand Antoni Ossendowski Ferdynand Antoni Ossendowski (27 May 1876 – 3 January 1945) was a Poles, Polish writer, explorer, university professor, and anticommunist political activist. He is known for his books about Lenin and the Russian Civil War in which he particip ...

(written and published in Russian) is about a feminist revolution. Other feminist utopias include short

farce Farce is a comedy that seeks to entertain an audience through situations that are highly exaggerated, extravagant, ridiculous, absurd, and improbable. Farce is also characterized by heavy use of physical humor; the use of deliberate absurdity or ...

s ''Women on Mars'' (1906) by

Victor Bilibin The name Victor or Viktor may refer to: * Victor (name), including a list of people with the given name, mononym, or surname Arts and entertainment Film * ''Victor'' (1951 film), a French drama film * ''Victor'' (1993 film), a French shor ...

and ''Women Problem'' (1913) by Nadezhda Teffi. ''In Half a Century'' (1902) by

Sergey Sharapov Sergey may refer to: * Sergey (name), a Russian given name (including a list of people with the name) * Sergey, Switzerland, a municipality in Switzerland * Sergey (wasp), ''Sergey'' (wasp), a genus in subfamily Doryctinae {{Disambiguation ...

is a patriarchal

Slavophile Slavophilia (russian: Славянофильство) was an intellectual movement originating from the 19th century that wanted the Russian Empire to be developed on the basis of values and institutions derived from Russia's early history. Slavoph ...

utopia, and ''Land of Bliss'' (1891) by Crimean Tatar

Ismail Gasprinski Ismail bey Gasprinsky (also written as Gaspirali and Gasprinski: crh, İsmail Gaspıralı, russian: Исмаи́л Гаспри́нский ''Ismail Gasprinskii''; – ) was a Crimean Tatar intellectual, educator, publisher and Pan-Turkist pol ...

is a Muslim utopia. Voluminous ''A Created Legend'' (1914) by another

Symbolist Symbolism was a late 19th-century art movement of French and Belgian origin in poetry and other arts seeking to represent absolute truths symbolically through language and metaphorical images, mainly as a reaction against naturalism and real ...

Fyodor Sologub Fyodor Sologub (russian: Фёдор Сологу́б, born Fyodor Kuzmich Teternikov, russian: Фёдор Кузьми́ч Тете́рников, also known as Theodor Sologub; – 5 December 1927) was a Russian Symbolist poet, novelist, transl ...

is a utopia full of science fictional wonders close to magic.

Genre fiction

Entertainment fiction adopted

scientistic Scientism is the opinion that science and the scientific method are the best or only way to render truth about the world and reality. While the term was defined originally to mean "methods and attitudes typical of or attributed to natural scientis ...

themes, such as resurrection of an ancient Roman (''Extraordinary Story of a Resurrected Pompeian'' by

Vasily Avenarius Vasily Petrovich Avenarius (russian: Василий Петрович Авенариус, born ''Wilhelm Heinrich Appolonius Avenarius'' 10 October 1839 - 9 November 1923) was a Russian writer and memoirist. Born in Tsarskoye Selo to a Lutheran pa ...

), global disaster (''Struggle of the Worlds'', 1900, by N. Kholodny; ''Under the Comet'', 1910, by Simon Belsky), mind reading devices (a recurring theme in works by

Andrey Zarin Andrey, Andrej or Andrei (in Cyrillic script: Андрей, Андреј or Андрэй) is a form of Andreas/Ἀνδρέας in Slavic languages and Romanian. People with the name include: * Andrei of Polotsk ( – 1399), Lithuanian nobleman *A ...

), Antarctic city-states (''Under the Glass Dome'', 1914, by Sergey Solomin), an elixir of longevity (''Brothers of the Saint Cross'', 1898, by Nikolay Shelonsky), and ''

Atlantis Atlantis ( grc, Ἀτλαντὶς νῆσος, , island of Atlas) is a fictional island mentioned in an allegory on the hubris of nations in Plato's works ''Timaeus'' and ''Critias'', wherein it represents the antagonist naval power that bes ...

'' (1913, by Larisa Reisner).

Spaceflight Spaceflight (or space flight) is an application of astronautics to fly spacecraft into or through outer space, either with or without humans on board. Most spaceflight is uncrewed and conducted mainly with spacecraft such as satellites in o ...

remained a central science fiction topic since the 1890s in ''In the Ocean of Stars'' (1892) by Anany Lyakide, ''In the Moon'' (1893) and ''Dreams of Earth and Skies'' (1895) by

Konstantin Tsiolkovsky Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky (russian: Константи́н Эдуа́рдович Циолко́вский , , p=kənstɐnʲˈtʲin ɪdʊˈardəvʲɪtɕ tsɨɐlˈkofskʲɪj , a=Ru-Konstantin Tsiolkovsky.oga; – 19 September 1935) ...

, ''Voyage to Mars'' (1901) by Leonid Bogoyavlensky, "In Space" (1908) by Nikolay Morozov, ''Sailing Ether'' (1913) by Boris Krasnogorsky and its sequel, ''Islands of Ethereal Ocean'' (1914, co-authored by astronomer

Daniil Svyatsky Daniil (russian: Даниил) is a Russian masculine given name; equivalent to that of the English given name Daniel. Notable examples People named Daniil include: Arts and literature *Daniil Andreyev (1906–1959), Russian writer, poet, and Ch ...

). In the 1910s Russian audience was interested in horror. ''Fire-Blossom'', a supernatural thriller by

Alexander Amfiteatrov Alexander Valentinovich Amfiteatrov (Amphiteatrof) (russian: Алекса́ндр Валенти́нович Амфитеа́тров); (December 26, 1862 – February 26, 1938) was a Russian writer, novelist, and historian. Biography Born a prie ...

and

Vera Kryzhanovsky Vera may refer to: Names * Vera (surname), a surname (including a list of people with the name) *Vera (given name), a given name (including a list of people and fictional characters with the name) **Vera (), archbishop of the archdiocese of Tarr ...

's occult romances, that combined sci-fi and reactionary elitist utopia, were popular.

Bram Stoker Abraham Stoker (8 November 1847 – 20 April 1912) was an Irish author who is celebrated for his 1897 Gothic horror novel ''Dracula''. During his lifetime, he was better known as the personal assistant of actor Sir Henry Irving and busin ...

's ''

Dracula ''Dracula'' is a novel by Bram Stoker, published in 1897. As an epistolary novel, the narrative is related through letters, diary entries, and newspaper articles. It has no single protagonist, but opens with solicitor Jonathan Harker taki ...

'' was imitated by pseudonymous "b. Olshevri" (= "more lies" in Russian) in ''Vampires'', even before the original was translated to Russian. Early

Alexander Grin Aleksandr Stepanovich Grinevsky (better known by his pen name, Aleksandr Green / Grin (spelling varies in non-Russian literature), rus, Александр Грин, p=ɐlʲɪˈksandr ɡrʲin, a=Ru-Aleksandr Grin.ogg, 23 August 1880 – 8 July 1932 ...

's stories are mostly psychological horror (influenced by

Ambrose Bierce Ambrose Gwinnett Bierce (June 24, 1842 – ) was an American short story writer, journalist, poet, and American Civil War veteran. His book '' The Devil's Dictionary'' was named as one of "The 100 Greatest Masterpieces of American Literature" by ...

), though later he drifted to fantasy. Future progress was described in fiction by scientists: "Wonders of Electricity" (1884) by electric engineer Vladimir Chikolev, ''Automatic Underground Railway'' (1902) by Alexander Rodnykh, and "Billionaire's Testament" (1904) by biologist Porfiry Bakhmetyev.

Future war ''Future War'' is a 1997 American direct-to-video science fiction film about an escaped human slave fleeing his cyborg masters and seeking refuge on Earth. It was lampooned in a 1999 episode of ''Mystery Science Theater 3000''. Plot A spaceship ...

stories were produced by the military (''Cruiser "Russian Hope"'' (1887) and ''Fatal War of 18..'' (1889) by retired navy officer

Alexander Belomor Alexander is a male given name. The most prominent bearer of the name is Alexander the Great, the king of the Ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia who created one of the largest empires in ancient history. Variants listed here are Aleksandar, Ale ...

, ''Big Fist or Chinese-European War'' (1900) by K. Golokhvastov, ''Queen of the World'' (1908) and ''Kings of the Air'' (1909) by navy officer Vladimir Semyonov, "War of Nations 1921-1923" (1912) by Ix, ''War of the "Ring" with the "Union"'' (1913) by P. R-tsky, and ''End of War'' (1915) by

Lev Zhdanov Lev may refer to: Common uses *Bulgarian lev, the currency of Bulgaria *an abbreviation for Leviticus, the third book of the Hebrew Bible and the Torah People and fictional characters *Lev (given name) *Lev (surname) Places *Lev, Azerbaijan, a ...

). ''Threat to the World'' (1914) by

Ivan Ryapasov Ivan () is a Slavic male given name, connected with the variant of the Greek name (English: John) from Hebrew meaning 'God is gracious'. It is associated worldwide with Slavic countries. The earliest person known to bear the name was Bulgar ...

(who styled himself "Ural Jules Verne") is similar to

Jules Verne Jules Gabriel Verne (;''Longman Pronunciation Dictionary''. ; 8 February 1828 – 24 March 1905) was a French novelist, poet, and playwright. His collaboration with the publisher Pierre-Jules Hetzel led to the creation of the ''Voyages extraord ...

The Begum's Fortune ''The Begum's Fortune'' (french: Les Cinq cents millions de la Bégum, literally "the 500 millions of the begum"), also published as ''The Begum's Millions'', is an 1879 novel by Jules Verne, with some utopian elements and other elements that see ...

. Jules Verne was so popular that

Anton Chekhov Anton Pavlovich Chekhov (; 29 January 1860Old Style date 17 January. – 15 July 1904Old Style date 2 July.) was a Russian playwright and short-story writer who is considered to be one of the greatest writers of all time. His career a ...

wrote a parody on him, and

Konstantin Sluchevsky Konstantin Konstantinovich Sluchevsky (russian: Константин Константинович Случевский), (1837–1904) was a Russian poet. Sluchevsky was born in St. Peterburg into a Russian noble family. He graduated from th ...

produced a sequel - "

Captain Nemo Captain Nemo (; later identified as an Indian, Prince Dakkar) is a fictional character created by the French novelist Jules Verne (1828–1905). Nemo appears in two of Verne's science-fiction classics, '' Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Seas'' ...

in Russia" (1898). File:Александр Грин.jpg,

File:A A Bogdanov.jpg,

File:Valery Bryusov c. 1900.jpg,

Valery Bryusov Valery Yakovlevich Bryusov ( rus, Вале́рий Я́ковлевич Брю́сов, p=vɐˈlʲerʲɪj ˈjakəvlʲɪvʲɪdʑ ˈbrʲusəf, a=Valyeriy Yakovlyevich Bryusov.ru.vorb.oga; – 9 October 1924) was a Russian poet, prose writer, drama ...

Soviet period

Soviet science fiction

The Soviet era was the

of Russian science fiction. Soviet writers were innovative, numerous and prolific, despite limitations set up by state censorship. Both Russian and foreign writers of science fiction enjoyed mainstream popularity in the Soviet Union, and many books were adapted for film and animation.

Early Soviet era

The birth of Soviet science fiction was spurred by

scientific revolution The Scientific Revolution was a series of events that marked the emergence of modern science during the early modern period, when developments in mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology (including human anatomy) and chemistry transformed ...

industrialisation Industrialisation ( alternatively spelled industrialization) is the period of social and economic change that transforms a human group from an agrarian society into an industrial society. This involves an extensive re-organisation of an econ ...

, mass education and other dramatic social changes that followed the

Russian Revolution The Russian Revolution was a period of political and social revolution that took place in the former Russian Empire which began during the First World War. This period saw Russia abolish its monarchy and adopt a socialist form of government ...

. Early Soviet authors from the 1920s, such as

Alexander Belyaev Alexander Romanovich Belyaev (russian: Алекса́ндр Рома́нович Беля́ев, ; – 6 January 1942) was a Soviet Russian writer of science fiction. His works from the 1920s and 1930s made him a highly regarded figure in Russi ...

Grigory Adamov Grigory Borisovich Adamov (russian: link=no, Григорий Борисович Адамов; born Abram Borukhovich Gibs; Абрам Борухович Гибс; May 18, 1886, Kherson, then Russian Empire, now Ukraine, - June 14, 1945, Moscow, ...

Vladimir Obruchev Vladimir Afanasyevich Obruchev (russian: Влади́мир Афана́сьевич О́бручев; , Klepenino near Rzhev, Tver Oblast, Russian Empire – June 19, 1956, Moscow, USSR) was a Russian and Soviet geologist who specialize ...

and

Alexey N. Tolstoy Aleksey Nikolayevich Tolstoy (russian: link= no, Алексей Николаевич Толстой; – 23 February 1945) was a Russian writer who wrote in many genres but specialized in science fiction and historical novels. Despite having ...

, stuck to

hard science fiction Hard science fiction is a category of science fiction characterized by concern for scientific accuracy and logic. The term was first used in print in 1957 by P. Schuyler Miller in a review of John W. Campbell's ''Islands of Space'' in the Nove ...

. They openly embraced influence from the genre's western classics, such as

, Arthur Conan Doyle and especially

H. G. Wells Herbert George Wells"Wells, H. G."
Revised 18 May 2015. ''

Science fiction books from the 1920s included science predictions, adventure and space travel, often with a hue of ''

working class The working class (or labouring class) comprises those engaged in manual-labour occupations or industrial work, who are remunerated via waged or salaried contracts. Working-class occupations (see also " Designation of workers by collar colo ...

'' agenda and satire against capitalism. Alexey N. Tolstoy's ''

Aelita ''Aelita'' (russian: Аэли́та, ), also known as ''Aelita: Queen of Mars'', is a 1924 Soviet silent science fiction film directed by Yakov Protazanov and produced at the Mezhrabpom-Rus film studio. It was based on Alexei Tolstoy's 1923 ...

'' (1923), one of the most influential books of the era, featured two Russians raising a revolution on Mars. Tolstoy's ''

Engineer Garin's Death Ray ''The Garin Death Ray'', also known as ''The Death Box'' and ''The Hyperboloid of Engineer Garin'' (russian: Гиперболоид инженера Гарина), is a science fiction novel by the noted Russian author Aleksey Nikolayevich Tolst ...

'' (1926) follows a mad scientist who plans to take over the world, and he's eventually welcomed by capitalists. Similarly, the main antagonist of Belyaev's ''

The Air Seller ''The Air Seller'' (rus. Продавец воздуха) is a science fiction novel by Russian writer Alexander Belayev. It was first published in 1929, in several issues of '' Vokrug Sveta'' magazine. The first book edition was in 1956. Plot ...

'' (1929) is a megalomaniac capitalist who plots to steal all the world's atmosphere. Belyaev's ''Battle in Ether'' (1928) is about a future world war, fought between communist Europe and capitalist America. The novel ''

Professor Dowell's Head ''Professor Dowell's Head'' is a 1925 science fiction and horror story (and later novel) by Russian author Alexander Belyaev. Plot Professor Dowell and his assistant surgeon Dr. Kern are working on medical problems including life support in sep ...

'' (1925), also by Belyaev, is about a mad doctor who performs experimental head transplants on stolen bodies in a hospital, which he operates solely for profit, and where the patients aren't really sick at all. Soviet authors were also interested in the distant past. Belyaev described his view of "historical" Atlantis in ''The Last Man from Atlantis'' (1926), and Obruchev is best known for '' Plutonia'' (written in 1915, before Revolution, but only published in 1924), set inside

hollow Earth The Hollow Earth is a concept proposing that the planet Earth is entirely hollow or contains a substantial interior space. Notably suggested by Edmond Halley in the late 17th century, the notion was disproven, first tentatively by Pierre Bougue ...

where dinosaurs and other extinct species survived, as well as for his other "lost world" novel, ''

Sannikov Land Sannikov Land (russian: Земля Санникова) was a phantom island in the Arctic Ocean. Its supposed existence became something of a myth in 19th-century Russia. History Yakov Sannikov and Matvei Gedenschtrom claimed to have seen the ...

'' (1924). Two notable exclusions from Soviet 'Wellsian' tradition were

Yevgeny Zamyatin Yevgeny Ivanovich Zamyatin ( rus, Евге́ний Ива́нович Замя́тин, p=jɪvˈɡʲenʲɪj ɪˈvanəvʲɪtɕ zɐˈmʲætʲɪn; – 10 March 1937), sometimes anglicized as Eugene Zamyatin, was a Russian author of science fictio ...

, author of dystopian novel '' We'' (1924), and Mikhail Bulgakov, who contributed to science fiction with ''

Heart of a Dog ''Heart of a Dog'' (russian: links=no, italic=yes, Собачье сердце, Sobachye serdtse) is a novella by Russian author Mikhail Bulgakov. A biting satire of Bolshevism, it was written in 1925 at the height of the NEP period, when comm ...

'' (1925), ''

The Fatal Eggs ''The Fatal Eggs'' (russian: Роковые яйца, ) is a novella by Mikhail Bulgakov, a Soviet novelist and playwright whose most famous work is ''The Master and Margarita''. It was written in 1924 and first published in 1925. The novel beca ...

'' (1925) and '' Ivan Vasilyevich'' (1936). The two used science fiction for social satire rather than scientistic prediction, and challenged the traditional communist worldview. Some of their books were refused or even banned and only became officially published in the 1980s. Nevertheless, Zamyatin and especially Bulgakov became relatively well-known through circulation of fan-made copies. The following Stalin era, from the mid-1930s to the early 1950s, saw a period of stagnation in Soviet science fiction, because of heavy censorship that forced the writers to adopt

socialist realism Socialist realism is a style of idealized realistic art that was developed in the Soviet Union and was the official style in that country between 1932 and 1988, as well as in other socialist countries after World War II. Socialist realism is ch ...

cliches. Science fiction of this period is called "close aim". Instead of the distant future, it was set in "tomorrow", and limited itself to anticipation of industrial achievements, inventions and travels within the Solar system. The top "close aim" writers were Alexander Kazantsev,

Georgy Martynov Georgy may refer to: *Georgy (given name) *Diminituve for Georgina *Georgy, the protagonist in ''Georgy Girl'' novel, film, and song * ''Georgy'' (musical), a musical from the novel ''Georgy Girl'' See also *Georgi (disambiguation) *Georgiy, a giv ...

, Vladimir Savchenko and

Georgy Gurevich Georgy may refer to: * Georgy (given name) *Diminituve for Georgina *Georgy, the protagonist in ''Georgy Girl'' novel, film, and song * ''Georgy'' (musical), a musical from the novel ''Georgy Girl'' See also * Georgi (disambiguation) * Georgiy, a ...

. In films the "close aim" era lasted longer, and many films based on "close aim" books and scripts were made in the 1950s and 1960s. Some of these films, namely '' Planet of the Storms'' (1962) and '' The Sky Beckons'' (1959), were pirated, re-edited and released in the West under different titles.The Guardian
Rockets from Russia: great Eastern Bloc science-fiction films
/ref>

Late Soviet era

Algis Budrys Algirdas Jonas "Algis" Budrys (January 9, 1931 – June 9, 2008) was a Lithuanian-American science fiction author, editor, and critic. He was also known under the pen names Frank Mason, Alger Rome (in collaboration with Jerome Bixby), John ...

described postwar Russian science fiction as akin to the style of

Hugo Gernsback Hugo Gernsback (; born Hugo Gernsbacher, August 16, 1884 – August 19, 1967) was a Luxembourgish–American editor and magazine publisher, whose publications including the first science fiction magazine. His contributions to the genre as publ ...

: "Ah, Comrade, here among the marvels of the year 2000 ... we are free to discuss

dialectical materialism Dialectical materialism is a philosophy of science, history, and nature developed in Europe and based on the writings of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Marxist dialectics, as a materialist philosophy, emphasizes the importance of real-world c ...

in total tranquility". In the second half of the 20th century, Soviet science fiction authors, inspired by the Thaw period of the 1950 and 1960s and the country's space pioneering, developed a more varied and complex approach. The liberties of the genre offered Soviet writers a loophole for free expression.

Social science fiction Social science fiction is a subgenre of science fiction, usually (but not necessarily) soft science fiction, concerned less with technology/space opera and more with speculation about society. In other words, it "absorbs and discusses anthropolo ...

, concerned with philosophy,

ethics Ethics or moral philosophy is a branch of philosophy that "involves systematizing, defending, and recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior".''Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' The field of ethics, along with aesthetics, concerns ...

n and

dystopia A dystopia (from Ancient Greek δυσ- "bad, hard" and τόπος "place"; alternatively cacotopiaCacotopia (from κακός ''kakos'' "bad") was the term used by Jeremy Bentham in his 1818 Plan of Parliamentary Reform (Works, vol. 3, p. 493). ...

n ideas, became the prevalent subgenre; Budrys said in 1968, when reviewing a collection translated into English, that Russian authors had "discovered John Campbell", with stories that "read like they were from the back pages of circa 1950 ''

Astounding ''Analog Science Fiction and Fact'' is an American science fiction magazine published under various titles since 1930. Originally titled ''Astounding Stories of Super-Science'', the first issue was dated January 1930, published by William C ...

''s". Most Soviet writers still portrayed the future Earth optimistically, as a communist utopia - some did it frankly, some to please publishers and avoid censorship.

Postapocalyptic Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction is a subgenre of speculative fiction in which the Earth's (or another planet's) civilization is collapsing or has collapsed. The apocalypse event may be climatic, such as runaway climate change; ast ...

and

n plots were usually placed outside Earth – on underdeveloped planets, in the distant past, or on parallel worlds. Nevertheless, the settings occasionally bore allusion of the real world, and could serve as a satire of contemporary society. The breakthrough is considered to have been started with

Ivan Yefremov Ivan Antonovich (real patronymic Antipovich) Yefremov ( ru , Ива́н Анто́нович (Анти́пович) Ефре́мов; April 23, 1908 – October 5, 1972; last name sometimes transliterated as Efremov) was a Soviet paleonto ...

's ''

Andromeda Andromeda most commonly refers to: * Andromeda (mythology), a princess from Greek mythology * Andromeda (constellation), a region of the Earth's night sky * The Andromeda Galaxy, an astronomical object within the constellation Andromeda may also ...

'' (1957), a

set in the very distant future. Yefremov rose to fame with his

n views on the future, as well as on

Ancient Greece Ancient Greece ( el, Ἑλλάς, Hellás) was a northeastern Mediterranean civilization, existing from the Greek Dark Ages of the 12th–9th centuries BC to the end of classical antiquity ( AD 600), that comprised a loose collection of cult ...

in his

historical novels Historical fiction is a literary genre in which the plot takes place in a setting related to the past events, but is fictional. Although the term is commonly used as a synonym for historical fiction literature, it can also be applied to other t ...

. He was soon followed by a duo of brothers

Arkady and Boris Strugatsky The brothers Arkady Natanovich Strugatsky (russian: Аркадий Натанович Стругацкий; 28 August 1925 – 12 October 1991) and Boris Natanovich Strugatsky ( ru , Борис Натанович Стругацкий; 14 A ...

, who have taken a more critical approach: their books included darker themes and social satire. The Strugatskies are best known for their

Noon Universe The Noon Universe ( Russian term: "Мир Полудня" or "Мир Полдня" – "World of Noon"; also known as the “Wanderers’ Universe”) is a fictional future setting for a number of hard science fiction novels written by Arkady and ...

novels, such as ''

Hard to be a God ''Hard to Be a God'' (russian: Трудно быть богом, translit=''Trudno byt' bogom'') is a 1964 science-fiction novel by the Soviet writers Arkady and Boris Strugatsky, set in the Noon Universe. Premise and themes The novel follows ...

'' (1964) and ''

Prisoners of Power ''Prisoners of Power'', also known as ''Inhabited Island'' (russian: Обитаемый остров, translit=''Obitaemyy ostrov'', ), is a science fiction novel written by Soviet authors Arkady and Boris Strugatsky. It was written in 1969 and or ...

'' (1969). A recurring theme in Strugatskies' fiction were

progressor The Noon Universe ( Russian term: "Мир Полудня" or "Мир Полдня" – "World of Noon"; also known as the “Wanderers’ Universe”) is a fictional future setting for a number of hard science fiction novels written by Arkady and B ...

s: agents of utopian future Earth who secretly spread scientistic and social progress to underdeveloped planets. Progressors often failed, bitterly recognizing that society is not ready for communism. The brothers are also credited for the Soviet's first

science fantasy Science fantasy is a hybrid genre within speculative fiction that simultaneously draws upon or combines tropes and elements from both science fiction and fantasy. In a conventional science fiction story, the world is presented as being scienti ...

, the ''

Monday Begins on Saturday ''Monday Begins on Saturday'' (russian: Понедельник начинается в субботу) is a 1965 science fantasy novel by Soviet writers Boris and Arkady Strugatsky, with illustrations by Yevgeniy Migunov. Set in a fictional town ...

'' trilogy (1964), and their

post-apocalyptic Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic fiction is a subgenre of speculative fiction in which the Earth's (or another planet's) civilization is collapsing or has collapsed. The apocalypse event may be climatic, such as runaway climate change; ast ...

novel ''

Roadside Picnic ''Roadside Picnic'' (Russian: , ''Piknik na obochine'', ) is a philosophical science fiction novel by Soviet-Russian authors Arkady and Boris Strugatsky, written in 1971 and published in 1972. It is the brothers' most popular and most widely tra ...

'' (1971) is often believed to have been a prediction of the

Chernobyl disaster The Chernobyl disaster was a nuclear accident that occurred on 26 April 1986 at the No. 4 nuclear reactor, reactor in the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant, near the city of Pripyat in the north of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, Ukrainia ...

. Another notable late Soviet writer was

, whose books featured

and parallel worlds, and themes like

antimilitarism Antimilitarism (also spelt anti-militarism) is a doctrine that opposes war, relying heavily on a critical theory of imperialism and was an explicit goal of the First International, First and Second International. Whereas pacifism is the doctrine t ...

and

environment protection Environmental protection is the practice of protecting the natural environment by individuals, organizations and governments. Its objectives are to conserve natural resources and the existing natural environment and, where possible, to repair dam ...

. The

space opera Space opera is a subgenre of science fiction that emphasizes space warfare, with use of melodramatic, risk-taking space adventures, relationships, and chivalric romance. Set mainly or entirely in outer space, it features technological and soc ...

subgenre was less developed, because both state censors and "highbrow" intelligentsia writers viewed it unfavorably. Nevertheless, there were moderately successful attempts to adapt space westerns to Soviet soil. The first was Alexander Kolpakov with "Griada" (1960), followed by

Sergey Snegov Sergey Snegov (russian: Серге́й Алекса́ндрович Сне́гов) (20 August 1910, in Odessa – 23 February 1994), real surname Kozeryuk (russian: Козерюк), was a Soviet science fiction writer. In 1985, he was awarded the ...

with the ''

Humans as Gods ''Humans as Gods'' (russian: Люди как боги, translit. ''Lyudi kak bogi'') is a 1966–1977 science fiction trilogy by Soviet author Sergey Snegov. Despite being initially intended as a parody on space opera, mythological and ...

'' trilogy (1966–1977), among others. A specific branch of both science fiction and children's books appeared in the mid-Soviet era: the children's science fiction. It was meant to educate children while entertaining them. The star of the genre was Bulychov, who, along with his adult books, created ''

Alisa Selezneva Alisa Selezneva or Seleznyova (Russian: Алиса Селезнёва) is the main character of the series of children's science fiction books by Russian writer Kir Bulychev. The first book with Alisa Selezneva was published in 1965, and the se ...

'', a children's space adventure series about a teenage girl from the future. Others include Nikolay Nosov with his books about dwarf Neznayka, Evgeny Veltistov, who wrote about robot boy Electronic, Vitaly Melentyev, Yan Larri,

Vladislav Krapivin Vladislav Petrovich Krapivin (russian: Владислав Петрович Крапивин; 14 October 1938 – 1 September 2020) was a Russian children's books writer. Biography Vladislav Petrovich Krapivin was born in the city of Tyumen ...

, and

Vitaly Gubarev Vitali Georgievich Gubarev (russian: Виталий Георгиевич Губарев; – 1981) was a Soviet Russian writer of children's literature. Biography Gubarev was born in Rostov-on-Don (modern-day Rostov Oblast of Russia). According ...

Films and other media

Soviet cinema developed a tradition of science fiction films, with directors like

Pavel Klushantsev Pavel Vladimirovich Klushantsev (russian: Па́вел Влади́мирович Клуша́нцев; 25 February 1910 – 27 April 1999) was a Russian cameraman of higher category (1939), film director, producer, screenwriter and author who w ...

Andrey Tarkovsky Andrei Arsenyevich Tarkovsky ( rus, Андрей Арсеньевич Тарковский, p=ɐnˈdrʲej ɐrˈsʲenʲjɪvʲɪtɕ tɐrˈkofskʲɪj; 4 April 1932 – 29 December 1986) was a Russian filmmaker. Widely considered one of the greates ...

Konstantin Lopushansky Konstantin Sergeyevich Lopushansky (russian: Константин Сергеевич Лопушанский; born June 12, 1947) is a Soviet and Russian film director, film theorist and author. He is best known for directing the apocalyptic and p ...

Vladimir Tarasov Vladimir Ilich Tarasov (russian: Владимир Ильич Тарасов; born 7 February 1939 in Moscow) is a Russian animator and animation director. He is best known for his Soviet-era science fiction short films, such as ''The Pass, Co ...

, Richard Viktorov and

Gennady Tischenko Gennady ( rus, Геннадий, p=ɡʲɪˈnadʲɪj), also spelled Gennadi or Gennadiy, is a Russian male name. They are derived from the Greek given name Gennadius. People *Gennady Gladkov, Soviet and Russian composer *Gennady Golovkin, Kazakh b ...

. Many science fiction books, especially children's, were made into films, animation and TV. The most adapted Russian SF author was Bulychov; of the numerous films based on ''Alisa Selezneva'' stories, animation ''

Mystery of the Third Planet ''The Mystery of the Third Planet'' (russian: Тайна третьей планеты, ''Tayna tretyey planety''), aka ''The Secret of the Third Planet'' is a 1981 Soviet traditionally animated feature film directed by Roman Kachanov and produce ...

'' (1981) is probably the most popular. Other Bulychov-based films include ''

Per Aspera Ad Astra ''Ad astra'' is a Latin phrase meaning "to the stars". The phrase has origins with Virgil, who wrote in his ''Aeneid'': "''sic itur ad astra''" ('thus one journeys to the stars') and "''opta ardua pennis astra sequi''" ('desire to pursue the h ...

'' (1981), ''

Guest from the Future ''Visitor from the Future'' (russian: Гостья из будущего, ''Gostya iz budushchego'' lit Guest from the future) is a five-part Soviet children's science fiction television miniseries, made at Gorky Film Studio, first aired in ...

'' (1985), ''

Two Tickets to India Two tickets to India (russian: Два билета в Индию, ''Dva bileta v Indiu'') is a 1985 Soviet/Russian traditionally animated short film directed Roman Kachanov. It was produced at the Soyuzmultfilm studio in Moscow and is based on t ...

'' (1985), '' The Pass'' (1988) and ''

The Witches Cave ''The Witches Cave'' (russian: Подземелье ведьм) is a 1989 science fantasy film from Gorky Film Studio, USSR and Barrandov Studios, Czechoslovakia. The script was written by Kir Bulychov based upon his own story and directed by Yu ...

'' (1990).

's ''

Stalker Stalking is unwanted and/or repeated surveillance by an individual or group toward another person. Stalking behaviors are interrelated to harassment and intimidation and may include following the victim in person or monitoring them. The term ...

'' (1979) was written by the Strugatskys, and is loosely based on their ''

''; there were also less successful films based on ''

Dead Mountaineer's Hotel ''The Dead Mountaineer's Hotel'' ( Russian: ''Отель «У Погибшего Альпиниста»'') is a 1970 Soviet science fiction novel written by brothers Arkady and Boris Strugatsky. In 2015, Melville House published an English tran ...

'' (1979) and ''

Hard to Be a God ''Hard to Be a God'' (russian: Трудно быть богом, translit=''Trudno byt' bogom'') is a 1964 science-fiction novel by the Soviet writers Arkady and Boris Strugatsky, set in the Noon Universe. Premise and themes The novel follows ...

'' (1989). ''

'' (1924) was the first Soviet SF film, and ''Engineer Garin'' was made into film twice, in 1965 and in 1973. ''

Amphibian Man ''Amphibian Man'' (rus. Человек-амфибия) is a science fiction adventure novel by the Soviet Russian writer Alexander Beliaev. It was published in 1928. Plot Argentinean doctor Salvator, a scientist and a maverick surgeon, giv ...

'' (1962), ''

The Andromeda Nebula ''The Andromeda Nebula'' (russian: Туманность Андромеды) is a 1967 Soviet science fiction film starring Sergei Stolyarov and directed by Yevgeni Sherstobitov at the Dovzhenko Film Studios. The film was originally intended to ...

'' (1967), '' Ivan Vasilyevich'' (1973), ''

'' (1988), '' Sannikov's Land'' (1974) and ''

Electronic Electronic may refer to: *Electronics, the science of how to control electric energy in semiconductor * ''Electronics'' (magazine), a defunct American trade journal *Electronic storage, the storage of data using an electronic device *Electronic co ...

'' (1980) were filmed as well. There were also numerous adaptations of foreign science fiction books, most frequently, by

Stanislaw Lem Stanislav and variants may refer to: People *Stanislav (given name), a Slavic given name with many spelling variations (Stanislaus, Stanislas, Stanisław, etc.) Places * Stanislav, a coastal village in Kherson, Ukraine * Stanislaus County, Cal ...

and

Ray Bradbury Ray Douglas Bradbury (; August 22, 1920June 5, 2012) was an American author and screenwriter. One of the most celebrated 20th-century American writers, he worked in a variety of modes, including fantasy, science fiction, horror, mystery fictio ...

. Of the movies based on original scripts, the comedy ''

Kin-dza-dza! ''Kin-dza-dza!'' (russian: link=no, italics=yes, Кин-дза-дза!) is a 1986 Soviet film released by the Mosfilm studio and directed by Georgiy Daneliya, with a story by Georgiy Daneliya and Revaz Gabriadze. Plot The story begins in 1980s M ...

'' (1986) and children's space opera duology ''

Moscow-Cassiopeia ''Moscow-Alpha Cassiopeiae, Cassiopeia'' (russian: Москва — Кассиопея, Moskva-Kassiopeya) is a Soviet Union, Soviet comic science fiction film directed by Richard Viktorov based on a script by Isai Kuznetsov and Avenir Zak. Followe ...

'' (1973) and ''

Teens in the Universe ''Teens in the Universe'' (russian: Отроки во Вселенной, Otroki vo vselennoy) is a Soviet 1974 science fiction film directed by Richard Viktorov based on a script by Isai Kuznetsov and Avenir Zak about teens in the universe. Pre ...

'' (1974) should be noted. Despite the genre's popularity, the Soviet Union had very few media dedicated solely to science fiction, and most of them were

fanzine A fanzine (blend of '' fan'' and ''magazine'' or ''-zine'') is a non-professional and non-official publication produced by enthusiasts of a particular cultural phenomenon (such as a literary or musical genre) for the pleasure of others who share t ...

s, released by SF fan clubs. SF short stories were usually present in either

popular science ''Popular Science'' (also known as ''PopSci'') is an American digital magazine carrying popular science content, which refers to articles for the general reader on science and technology subjects. ''Popular Science'' has won over 58 awards, incl ...

magazines, such as ''

Tekhnika Molodezhi ''Tekhnika Molodezhi'' (russian: Техника — молодёжи, "Technology for the Youth") is a Soviet, and eventually Russian popular science magazine which has been published monthly since 1933. History and profile ''Tekhnika Molodezhi' ...

'', ''

Vokrug sveta ''Vokrug sveta'' (russian: Вокруг света, literally: "Around the World") is a Russian geographic magazine. It is the longest running magazine in the Russian language. The first issue was printed in Saint Petersburg, in December 1861, a ...

'' and ''

Uralsky Sledopyt ''Uralsky Sledopyt'' (russian: Уральский Следопыт, ''Ural Pathfinder'') is a Soviet and Russian magazine dedicated to tourism and local history. It also has a science fiction section. It is printed in Yekaterinburg (formerly Sver ...

'', or in literary anthologies, such as ''Mir Priklyucheniy'', that also included adventure, history and mystery.

Soviet fantasy

Literature

Fantasy fiction in the Soviet Union was represented primarily by children tales and stage plays. Some of the early Soviet children's prose was loose adaptations of foreign fairy tales unknown in contemporary Russia.

wrote ''

Buratino Buratino (Russian: Буратино) is the main character of Aleksey Nikolayevich Tolstoy's 1936 book ''The Golden Key, or the Adventures of Buratino'', which is based on the 1883 Italian novel ''The Adventures of Pinocchio'' by Carlo Collo ...

'', a light-hearted and shortened adaptation of

Carlo Collodi Carlo Lorenzini (24 November 1826 – 26 October 1890), better known by the pen name Carlo Collodi (), was an Italian author, humourist, and journalist, widely known for his fairy tale novel ''The Adventures of Pinocchio''. Early life Co ...

's ''

Pinocchio Pinocchio ( , ) is a fictional character and the protagonist of the children's novel ''The Adventures of Pinocchio'' (1883) by Italian writer Carlo Collodi of Florence, Tuscany. Pinocchio was carved by a woodcarver named Geppetto in a Tuscan vil ...

''. Alexander Volkov introduced fantasy fiction to Soviet children with his loose translation of

Frank L. Baum Lyman Frank Baum (; May 15, 1856 – May 6, 1919) was an American author best known for his children's books, particularly ''The Wonderful Wizard of Oz'' and its sequels. He wrote 14 novels in the ''Oz'' series, plus 41 other novels (not includ ...

's ''

The Wonderful Wizard of Oz ''The Wonderful Wizard of Oz'' is a children's novel written by author L. Frank Baum and illustrated by W. W. Denslow. It is the first novel in the Oz series of books. A Kansas farm girl named Dorothy ends up in the magical Land of Oz aft ...

'', published as '' The Wizard of the Emerald City'', and then wrote a series of five sequels, unrelated to Baum. Another notable author was

Lazar Lagin Lazar Iosifovich Lagin (russian: Ла́зарь Ио́сифович Лагин), real name Lazar Ginzburg (4 December 1903, Vitebsk – 4 June 1979, Moscow), was a Soviet and Russian author of children's and science fiction books. Lagin is ...

with ''

Old Khottabych ''Starik Khottabych'' (russian: Старик Хоттабыч, ''Old Man Khottabych'' or ''Old Khottabych'') is a Sovcolor Soviet fantasy film produced in the USSR by Goskino at Kinostudyia Lenfilm (Lenfilm Studio) in 1956, based on a children' ...

'', a children's tale about an Arab genie Khottabych bound to serve a Soviet schoolboy. Any sort of literature that dealt seriously with the

supernatural Supernatural refers to phenomena or entities that are beyond the laws of nature. The term is derived from Medieval Latin , from Latin (above, beyond, or outside of) + (nature) Though the corollary term "nature", has had multiple meanings si ...

, either

, adult-oriented fantasy or magic realism, was unwelcomed by Soviet censors. Until the 1980s very few books in these genres were written, and even fewer were published, although earlier books, such as by Gogol, were not banned. Of the rare exceptions, Bulgakov in ''

Master and Margarita ''The Master and Margarita'' (russian: Мастер и Маргарита) is a novel by Soviet writer Mikhail Bulgakov, written in the Soviet Union between 1928 and 1940 during Stalin's regime. A censored version, with several chapters cut by ...

'' (not published in author's lifetime), the Strugatskies in ''

'' and Vladimir Orlov in ''Danilov, the Violist'' introduced magic and mystical creatures into contemporary Soviet reality in a satirical and fabulous manner. Another exception was early Soviet writer

, who wrote romantic tales, both realistic and fantastic. Magic and other fantasy themes occasionally appeared in theatrical plays by Evgeny Shvarts, Grigory Gorin and Mikhail Bulgakov. Their plays were family-oriented fables, where supernatural elements served as an allegory. The supernatural horror genre, by contrast, was almost completely eliminated by censors' demands for every media to be modest and family-friendly.

Films

Fantasy, mythology and folklore were often present in Soviet film and animation, especially children's. Most films were adaptations of traditional fairy tales and myths, both Russian and foreign. But there were also many adaptations of stories by

, Rudyard Kipling, Astrid Lindgren, Alan Alexander Milne, among many others. There were numerous fantasy feature films by Alexander Rou (''Kashchey the Deathless (film), Kashchey the Deathless, The Magic Weaver, Maria the Magic Weaver, Kingdom of Crooked Mirrors'', etc.) and Alexander Ptushko (''The New Gulliver, Sadko (film), Sadko, Ilya Muromets (film), Ilya Muromets, Sampo (film), Sampo'', etc.). Ptushko also wrote ''Viy (1967 film), Viy'' the most famous (and arguably the only "true") Soviet supernatural horror film. Fantasy animated features were produced by directors like Lev Atamanov (''The Snow Queen (1957 film), Snow Queen, The Scarlet Flower (1952 film), Scarlet Flower'', etc.), Ivan Ivanov-Vano (''The Humpbacked Horse (film), Humpbacked Horse, The Snow Maiden (1952 film), Snow Maiden'', etc.), and Alexandra Snezhko-Blotskaya (''The Enchanted Boy, The Tale of the Golden Cockerel, Golden Cockerel'', numerous adaptations of Greek mythology). The late Soviet era saw a number of adult-oriented Fable, fabulous films, close to magic realism. They were written by Shvartz (''An Ordinary Miracle (1978 film), An Ordinary Miracle, Cain XVIII''), Gorin (''Formula of Love, The Very Same Munchhausen''), and Strugatskies (''Charodei, Magicians''); most of them were directed by Mark Zakharov. Several Soviet fantasy films were co-produced with foreign studios. Most notably, ''Mio in the Land of Faraway'' (1987, co-produced with USA and Sweden) was shot by a Soviet crew in the English language, and featured Christoper Lee and Christian Bale. Other examples include ''The Story of Voyages'' (1983, co-produced with Czechoslovakia and Romania) and ''Sampo (film), Sampo'' (1959, co-produced with Finland).

Most notable Soviet writers

File:Alexander Belayev.jpg,

Image:ANTolstoy.jpg, Alexey N. Tolstoy Image:Bulgakov1910s.jpg, Mikhail Bulgakov File:Иван Ефремов 1925.jpeg,

File:Boris Strugatsky Seminar 20060109 02.jpg, Boris Strugatsky File:Kir Bulychev 1997.jpg,

Post-Soviet period

Literature

From the 1990s to this day, fantasy and science fiction are among the best-selling literature in Russia. The fall of state censorship in the late 1980s allowed publishing of numerous translations of Western books and films that were previously unreleased in Russia. A new wave of writers rediscovered high fantasy and was influenced with John R. R. Tolkien, Robert E. Howard and, more recently, George R. R. Martin. While the majority of Russian fantasy writers, such as Nick Perumov, Vera Kamsha, Alexey Pekhov and Tony Vilgotsky, followed the Western tradition with its archetypal Norse or Anglo-Saxon settings, some others, most notably Maria Semenova and Yuri Nikitin (author), Yuri Nikitin, prefer Russian mythology as inspiration. Comic fantasy is also popular, with authors such as Max Frei, Andrey Belyanin and Olga Gromyko. Urban fantasy, Urban and gothic fantasy, virtually absent in the Soviet Union, became notable in modern Russia after the success of Sergey Lukyanenko's ''Night Watch (Lukyanenko novel), Night Watch'' and Vadim Panov's ''Secret City''. Magic realism is represented by Maria Galina and Lyudmila Petrushevskaya. Sergey Malitsky is also a notable author with his own distinctive style. In science fiction, with communist censorship gone, many various portrayals of the future appeared, including dystopias. Post-apocalyptic fiction,

and alternate history are among the most popular genres, represented by authors like Vyacheslav Rybakov, Yuri Nikitin (author), Yuri Nikitin and Yulia Latynina among many others. Overuse of fish-out-of-water plots for time travel and parallel worlds led Russian SF&F journalists to coin the ironic term ''popadanets'' (Rus. попаданец, lit. ''getter-into'') for such characters. There are still many writers of traditional space-related science fiction including

s, such as Alexander Zorich (''Tomorrow War'' series), Lukyanenko (''Lord from Planet Earth'') and Andrey Livadny, among others. The late 2000s and early 2010s saw a rise of Russian Steampunk, with such books as Alexey Pekhov's ''Mockingbird'' (2009), Vadim Panov's ''Hermeticon'' (2011), and ''Cetopolis'' (2012) by Gray F. Green (a collective pen name). Some of the modern Russian-language SF&F is written in Ukraine, especially in its "sci-fi capital", Kharkiv, home to H. L. Oldie, Alexander Zorich, Yuri Nikitin (author), Yuri Nikitin and Andrey Valentinov. Many others hail from Kyiv, including Marina and Sergey Dyachenko and Vladimir Arenev. Belarusian authors, such as Olga Gromyko, Kirill Benediktov, Yuri Brayder and Nikolai Chadovich, also contributed to the genres. Some authors, namely Kamsha, Dyachenkos and Frei, were born in Ukraine and moved to Russia at some point. Most Ukrainian and Belarusian SF&F authors write in Russian, which gives them access to a broad Russophone audience of the post-Soviet countries, and usually publish their books via Russian publishers such as Eksmo, Azbuka and AST (publisher), AST. In the post-Soviet fantasy and science fiction, the extensive serializing of successful formulas has become usual. Most notable are the two postapocalyptic book series based on the ''S.T.A.L.K.E.R.: Shadow of Chernobyl, S.T.A.L.K.E.R.'' computer game and ''Metro 2033 (novel), Metro 2033'' novel, both of which featured a well-developed universe. The ''S.T.A.L.K.E.R.'' book series' features are heavy branding and almost negligible influence of the actual writer's name on individual novels (also, a TV show is in development). And though ''Metro 2033'' raised its creator Dmitry Glukhovsky to national fame, it quickly developed into a franchise, with over 15 books published by various authors and spanned a tie-in Metro 2033 (video game), videogame.

Movies

Production of science fiction and fantasy films in modern Russia dropped in comparison to Soviet cinema, due to high costs of visual effects. Throughout the 1990s, almost no movies in these genres were made. In the 2000s and 2010s, however, Russia once again produced a number of films. Most of them were based on books, notably by Sergey Lukyanenko (''Night Watch (2004 film), Night Watch, Day Watch (film), Day Watch, Asiris Nuna''), Bulychov (''Alice's Birthday''), the Strugatsky brothers' (''The Inhabited Island, The Ugly Swans (film), Ugly Swans, Hard to Be a God (2013 film), Hard to be a God''), Semyonova (''Wolfhound (2006 film), Wolfhound of the Grey Hound Clan'') and Gogol (''Viy (2014 film), Viy''). A stand-out in animation is the 2010 steampunk short "Invention of Love" (":w:ru:Изобретение любви, Изобретение любви") by Andrey Shushkov. A number of children's fairy tale films and animations were based on Russian mythology and history, most of them by Melnitsa Animation Studio (most notably, The Three Bogatyrs franchise and ''Prince Vladimir (film), Prince Vladimir''). In 2014, the Soviet classic ''Kin-dza-dza'' was remade into a family-friendly animation ''Ku! Kin-dza-dza''. Movies based on original scripts were rare until mid-2010, but since then, the situation has changed. Original plots include the mockumentary ''First on the Moon'', the time travel drama ''Black Hunters, We are from the Future'', cyberpunk action ''Hardcore Henry'', the science fiction drama ''Attraction (2017 film), Attraction'', superhero films ''Black Lightning (2009 film), Black Lightning'' and ''Zaschitniki''. Timur Bekmambetov and Fyodor Bondarchuk have been amongst the most influential producers and directors in the recent period.

Other media

Russian video game developers also contributed to the genres. Examples include the fantasy-based Massively multiplayer online role-playing game, MMORPG Allods Online, the turn-based strategy game Etherlords, and the science fiction game RTS Perimeter (video game), Perimeter, among many others. Science fiction and fantasy magazines, websites and other media became widespread in modern Russia. The largest magazine is ''Mir Fantastiki'', while ''Esli'' and ''Polden, XXI vek'' have closed down after the Great Recession. Ukrainian magazines, such as ''RBG-Azimuth'' or ''Realnost Fantastiki'', were mostly Russophone. Among websites, FantLab, Fantlab.ru and Mirf.ru are considered the most influential according to Roscon Award.

Notable writers

File:Lukianenko, Sergey.jpg, Sergey Lukyanenko File:Мария Семёнова.jpg, Maria Semenova File:Nick Perumov.png, Nick Perumov File:Vera Kamsha MOW Feb-2011.jpg, Vera Kamsha File:Vadim panov 2010.jpg, Vadim Panov File:H. L. Oldie.jpg, H. L. Oldie (Dmitry Gromov and Oleg Ladyzhensky) File:Marina and Sergey Dyachenko.jpg, Marina and Sergey Dyachenko File:Dmitry Glukhovsky MOW 03-2011.jpg, Dmitry Glukhovsky File:Martynchik Svetlana, author of Max Frei idea.jpg, Max Frei (Svetlana Martynchik) File:Latynina Yulia.jpg, Yulia Latynina

Reception

Russian science fiction and fantasy are popular in Poland.

Anthologies

A number of English anthologies of Russian science fiction and fantasy exist: * ''Soviet Science Fiction'', Collier Books, 1962, 189pp. * ''More Soviet Science Fiction'', Collier Books, 1962, 190pp. * ''Russian Science Fiction'', ed. Robert Magidoff, New York University Press, 1964. * ''Russian Science Fiction, 1968'', ed. Robert Magidoff, New York University Press, 1968. * ''Russian Science Fiction, 1969'', ed. Robert Magidoff, New York University Press, 1969. * ''New Soviet Science Fiction'', Macmillan, 1979, , xi+297pp. * ''Pre-Revolutionary Russian Science Fiction'': An Anthology (Seven Utopias and a Dream), ed. Leland Fetzer, Ardis, 1982, , 253pp. * ''Worlds Apart'' : An Anthology of Russian Science Fiction and Fantasy, ed. Alexander Levitsky, Overlook, 2007, , 656pp.

References

External links

Soviet science fiction, in Britannica Online

* [http://files.osa.ceu.hu/holdings/300/8/3/text/56-1-360.shtml "In the Light of the Silvery Sputnik". Notes on Soviet Science Fiction, Soviet Survey. January–March, 1958. I--Past and Present by Walter Z. Laqueur; II -- Fantasy and Reality by Vera Alexandrova; III - East and West by Zeev ben Shlomo]
Elana Gomel. Science Fiction in Russia: From Utopia to New Age

"Russian and East European Science Fiction Resources", 2010
- Slavic Reference Service {{DEFAULTSORT:Russian Science Fiction And Fantasy Russian science fiction, Soviet science fiction, Russian fantasy,

Terminology

Imperial period

18th and early 19th centuries

Late 19th - early 20th century

Utopias

Genre fiction

Soviet period

Soviet science fiction

Early Soviet era

Late Soviet era

Films and other media

Soviet fantasy

Literature

Films

Most notable Soviet writers

Post-Soviet period

Literature

Movies

Other media

Notable writers

Reception

Anthologies

Further reading

References

External links