Sonderkommandos

''Sonderkommandos'' (, ) were work units made up of German Nazi death camp prisoners. They were composed of prisoners, usually Jews, who were forced, on threat of their own deaths, to aid with the disposal of gas chamber victims during the Holocaust. The death-camp ''Sonderkommandos'', who were always inmates, were unrelated to the '' SS-Sonderkommandos'', which were ''ad hoc'' units formed from members of various SS offices between 1938 and 1945.

The German term was part of the vague and euphemistic language which the Nazis used to refer to aspects of the Final Solution (e.g., ''Einsatzkommando'', "deployment units").

Death factory workers

''Sonderkommando'' members did not participate directly in killing; that responsibility was reserved for the SS, while the ''Sonderkommandos'' primary duty was disposing of the corpses. In most cases, they were inducted immediately upon arrival at the camp and forced into the position under threat of death. They were not given any advance notice of the tasks they would have to perform. To their horror, sometimes the ''Sonderkommando'' inductees would discover members of their own family amid the bodies. They had no way to refuse or resign other than by committing suicide. In some places and environments, the ''Sonderkommandos'' might be euphemistically called ''Arbeitsjuden'' (Jews for work). At other times, ''Sonderkommandos'' were called ''Hilflinge'' (helpers). At Birkenau the ''Sonderkommandos'' numbered up to 400 people by 1943 and, when Hungarian Jews were deported there in 1944, their numbers swelled to more than 900 persons, in order to keep up with the increased rounds of murder and extermination.

Because the Germans needed the ''Sonderkommandos'' to remain physically able, they were granted much less squalid living conditions than other inmates: they slept in their own barracks and were allowed to keep and use various goods such as food, medicines and cigarettes brought into camp by those who were sent to the gas chambers. Unlike ordinary inmates, they were not normally subject to arbitrary killing by guards. Their livelihood and utility were determined by how efficiently they could keep the Nazi death factory running. As a result, ''Sonderkommando'' members survived longer in the death camps than other prisonersbut few survived the war.

As they had detailed knowledge of the Nazis' practice of mass murder, the ''Sonderkommando'' were considered ''Geheimnisträger''bearers of secrets. As such, they were held in isolation away from prisoners being used as slave labor (see SS Main Economic and Administrative Office). There was a belief that every three months, according to SS policy, almost all the ''Sonderkommandos'' working in the death camps' killing areas would be gassed themselves and replaced with new arrivals to ensure secrecy, and that some inmates survived for up to a year or more because they possessed specialist skills. Usually, the task of a new ''Sonderkommando'' unit would be to dispose of the bodies of their predecessors. Research has calculated that from the creation of a death camp's first ''Sonderkommando'' to the liquidation of the camp, there were approximately 14 generations of ''Sonderkommando''. However, according to historian Igor Bartosik, author of ''Witnesses from the Pit of Hell: History of the Auschwitz Sonderkommando'' (2022) published by the Auschwitz Museum, the renewed exterminations of the Auschwitz-Birkenau Sonderkommandos are a myth, since such an extermination only took place there once. "Nor was it true that prisoners were selected for their technical expertise. After a cursory inspection, they were selected merely in view of their apparent ability to work," wrote Bartosik.

Eyewitness testimony

Fewer than 20 of several thousand members of the ''Sonderkommandos'' are documented to have survived until liberation and to have testified about the events (although some sources claim more). Among them were Henryk (Tauber) Fuchsbrunner, Filip Müller, Daniel Behnnamias, Dario Gabbai, Morris Venezia, Shlomo Venezia, Antonio Boldrin, Alter Fajnzylberg, Samuel Willenberg, Abram Dragon, David Olère, Henryk Mandelbaum and Martin Gray. Another six or seven are confirmed to have survived, but did not give witness (or at least, such testimony is not documented). Buried and hidden accounts by members of the ''Sonderkommando'' were later found at some camps.

Between 1943 and 1944, some members of the Birkenau ''Sonderkommando'' were able to obtain writing materials and record some of their experiences and what they had witnessed. These documents were buried in the grounds of the crematoria and recovered after the war. Five men have been identified as the authors of these manuscripts: Zalman Gradowski, Zalman Lewental, and Leib Langfus, who wrote in Yiddish; Chaim Herman, who wrote in French; and Marcel Nadjary, who wrote in Greek. Of the five, only Nadjary survived until liberation; Gradowski was killed in the revolt at Crematorium IV on 7 October 1944 (see below), or in retaliation for it; Lewental, Langfus, and Herman are believed to have been killed in November 1944. Gradowski wrote the following note, found buried at an Auschwitz crematorium site:

The manuscripts are kept primarily in the archive of the Auschwitz-Birkenau State Memorial Museum. Exceptions are Herman's letter (kept in the archives of the ''Amicale des déportés d'Auschwitz-Birkenau'') and Gradowski's texts, one of which is held in the Russian Museum of Military Medicine in St. Petersburg, and another in Yad Vashem, Israel.
Some of the manuscripts were published as ''The Scrolls of Auschwitz'', edited by Ber Mark. The Auschwitz Museum published some others as ''Amidst a Nightmare of Crime''.

The Scrolls of Auschwitz have been recognised as some of the most important testimony to be written about the Holocaust, as they include contemporaneous eyewitness accounts of the workings of the gas chambers in Birkenau.

Revolts

''Sonderkommando'' prisoners participated in uprisings on two occasions.

Treblinka

The first revolt occurred at Treblinka on 2 August 1943. Prisoners used a duplicate key to open the camp arsenal and steal 20 to 25 rifles, 20 hand grenades, and several pistols. At 3:45 p.m., 700 Jews launched an attack on the camp's ''SS'' guards and trawnikis that lasted for 30 minutes. They set buildings and a fuel tanker ablaze. Armed Jews attacked the main gate, while others attempted to climb the fence. About 200 Jews escaped from the camp, but the well-armed guards slaughtered hundreds of others. They phoned for ''SS'' reinforcements from four towns, and these set up roadblocks and pursued escapees in cars and on horses.

Partisans of the ''Armia Krajowa'' (Polish: Home Army) transported some of the surviving escaped prisoners across the Bug River

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