The Somali Democratic Republic (; , ; ) was a

socialist state A socialist state, socialist republic, or socialist country is a sovereign state constitutionally dedicated to the establishment of socialism. This article is about states that refer to themselves as socialist states, and not specifically ...

in Somalia that existed from 1969 to 1991. Established in October 1969, the Somali Democratic Republic emerged following a

coup d'état A coup d'état (; ; ), or simply a coup , is typically an illegal and overt attempt by a military organization or other government elites to unseat an incumbent leadership. A self-coup is said to take place when a leader, having come to powe ...

led by Major General Mohamed Siyaad Barre and the Somali military. The coup took place six days after the assassination of

Abdirashid Shermarke Abdirashid Ali Sharmarke (, ) (8 June 1919 – 15 October 1969), was the first Prime Minister of Somalia from 12 July 1960 to 14 June 1964 and the second President of Somalia from 6 July 1967, until his assassination on October 15, 1969.

, the second President of the

Somali Republic The Somali Republic (; ; ) was formed by the union of the Trust Territory of Somaliland (formerly Italian Somaliland) and the State of Somaliland (formerly British Somaliland). A government was formed by Abdullahi Issa Mohamud and Muhammad ...

. Barre's administration governed Somalia for the next 21 years until the rise of Ethiopian-backed Somali rebel groups, which ultimately led to the government's collapse and the onset of

civil war A civil war is a war between organized groups within the same Sovereign state, state (or country). The aim of one side may be to take control of the country or a region, to achieve independence for a region, or to change government policies.J ...

in 1991.

History

Coup d'etat

, the 2nd president of Somalia, was assassinated outside the municipal headquarters of

Las Anod Las Anod (; ) is the administrative capital of the Sool region, currently controlled by Khatumo State forces aligned with Somalia. Territorial dispute The city is disputed by Puntland and Somaliland. The former bases its claim due to the kins ...

in Northern Somalia on 15 October 1969. Shermarke had been visiting drought-stricken areas in the northeast when the assassin, Said Yusuf Ismail, shot and killed him.

Henry Kissinger Henry Alfred Kissinger (May 27, 1923 – November 29, 2023) was an American diplomat and political scientist who served as the 56th United States secretary of state from 1973 to 1977 and the 7th National Security Advisor (United States), natio ...

, then United States National Security Advisor, concluded that the assassin acted independently. Sharmarke was elected in 1964 with support from the Soviet Union and other communist states during his campaign. On 21 October 1969, at 3:00 a.m., General Siyaad and the military overthrew the parliamentary government. One of the primary causes of the coup was widespread corruption and mishandling of public funds within the Somali government. Consequently, many members of the police and armed forces had become disillusioned with the direction of the country. The assassin, Ismail, was tried, tortured, and executed by the Supreme Revolutionary Council. Notably, Ismail shared the same clan background as President Shermarke.

Early years

The Supreme Revolutionary Council (SRC), which came to power following President Shermarke's assassination, was led by Lieutenant General Salaad Gabeyre Kediye and Chief of Police

Jama Ali Korshel Jama Ali Korshel (, ) was a Somali people, Somali Military of Somalia, army General officer, Major General who served as Head of the Somali Police Force. He was the Vice President of Somalia and VP of the Supreme Revolutionary Council (Somalia), ...

. Kediye held the official title of "Father of the Revolution", and shortly thereafter, Barre became the head of the SRC. The SRC arrested members of the former civilian government, banned political parties, dissolved the National Assembly, and suspended the constitution. The revolutionary army initiated large-scale public works programs and successfully implemented an urban and rural

literacy Literacy is the ability to read and write, while illiteracy refers to an inability to read and write. Some researchers suggest that the study of "literacy" as a concept can be divided into two periods: the period before 1950, when literacy was ...

campaign, significantly increasing the literacy rate. In addition to a

nationalization Nationalization (nationalisation in British English) is the process of transforming privately owned assets into public assets by bringing them under the public ownership of a national government or state. Nationalization contrasts with p ...

program for industry and land, the new regime's foreign policy emphasized Somalia's traditional and religious ties with the

Arab world The Arab world ( '), formally the Arab homeland ( '), also known as the Arab nation ( '), the Arabsphere, or the Arab states, comprises a large group of countries, mainly located in West Asia and North Africa. While the majority of people in ...

, leading to its membership in the

Arab League The Arab League (, ' ), officially the League of Arab States (, '), is a regional organization in the Arab world. The Arab League was formed in Cairo on 22 March 1945, initially with seven members: Kingdom of Egypt, Egypt, Kingdom of Iraq, ...

(AL) in 1974. That same year, Barre also served as

chairperson The chair, also chairman, chairwoman, or chairperson, is the presiding officer of an organized group such as a Board of directors, board, committee, or deliberative assembly. The person holding the office, who is typically elected or appointed by ...

of the

Organisation of African Unity The Organisation of African Unity (OAU; , OUA) was an African intergovernmental organization established on 25 May 1963 in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, with 33 signatory governments. Some of the key aims of the OAU were to encourage political and ec ...

(OAU), the predecessor of the

African Union The African Union (AU) is a continental union of 55 member states located on the continent of Africa. The AU was announced in the Sirte Declaration in Sirte, Libya, on 9 September 1999, calling for the establishment of the African Union. The b ...

(AU).Oihe Yang, ''Africa South of the Sahara 2001'', 30th ed. (Taylor and Francis: 2000), p. 1025. In July 1976, Barre's SRC disbanded and established the Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party (SRSP) as a one-party government based on

scientific socialism Scientific socialism in Marxism is the application of historical materialism to the development of socialism, as not just a practical and achievable outcome of historical processes, but the only possible outcome. It contrasts with utopian social ...

and Islamic principles. The SRSP aimed to reconcile the official state ideology with the official state religion, emphasizing Muslim principles of social progress, equality, and justice. The government argued that these principles formed the core of

, along with a focus on

self-sufficiency Self-sustainability and self-sufficiency are overlapping states of being in which a person, being, or system needs little or no help from, or interaction with others. Self-sufficiency entails the self being enough (to fulfill needs), and a sel ...

, public participation, popular control, and direct ownership of the

means of production In political philosophy, the means of production refers to the generally necessary assets and resources that enable a society to engage in production. While the exact resources encompassed in the term may vary, it is widely agreed to include the ...

. While the SRSP encouraged limited private investment, the administration's overall direction was proclaimed as

socialist Socialism is an economic ideology, economic and political philosophy encompassing diverse Economic system, economic and social systems characterised by social ownership of the means of production, as opposed to private ownership. It describes ...

Ogaden campaign

On 13 July 1977, the

Ogaden War The Ogaden War, also known as the Ethio-Somali War (, ), was a military conflict between Somali Democratic Republic, Somalia and derg, Ethiopia fought from July 1977 to March 1978 over control of the sovereignty of the Ogaden region. Somalia ...

against

Ethiopia Ethiopia, officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, is a landlocked country located in the Horn of Africa region of East Africa. It shares borders with Eritrea to the north, Djibouti to the northeast, Somalia to the east, Ken ...

erupted when Barre's government aimed to annex the predominantly Somali-inhabited

Ogaden Ogaden (pronounced and often spelled ''Ogadēn''; , ) is one of the historical names used for the modern Somali Region. It is also natively referred to as Soomaali Galbeed (). The region forms the eastern portion of Ethiopia and borders Somalia ...

region into a Pan-Somali

Greater Somalia Greater Somalia, also known as Greater Somaliland (; ), is the geographic location comprising the regions in the Horn of Africa in which ethnic Somalis live and have historically inhabited.During the Scramble for Africa at the end of the 19th cent ...

. This conflict was part of a broader SNA initiative to unify all Somali territories, known as Soomaaliweyn. In the first week of the war, the Somali National Army achieved remarkable victories over Ethiopian forces, surprising many American military observers who maintained a neutral stance. Southern and central

were quickly captured, and throughout much of the conflict, the Somali Army continued to defeat the Ethiopian Army, advancing as far as Sidamo. By September 1977, Somalia controlled 90% of the Ogaden, capturing strategic cities like Jijiga and exerting heavy pressure on

Dire Dawa Dire Dawa (; , meaning"where the Dir (clan), Dir hit his spear into the ground" or "The true Dir", , Harari language, Harari: ድሬዳዋ, lit. "Plain of Medicine"; ) is a city in eastern Ethiopia near the Somali Region and Oromia, Oromo borde ...

, thereby threatening the train route from that city to

Djibouti Djibouti, officially the Republic of Djibouti, is a country in the Horn of Africa, bordered by Somalia to the south, Ethiopia to the southwest, Eritrea in the north, and the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden to the east. The country has an area ...

. Following the siege of

Harar Harar (; Harari language, Harari: ሀረር / ; ; ; ), known historically by the indigenous as Harar-Gey or simply Gey (Harari: ጌይ, ݘٛىيْ, ''Gēy'', ), is a List of cities with defensive walls, walled city in eastern Ethiopia. It is al ...

, a massive and unprecedented Soviet intervention occurred, involving 20,000 Cuban troops and several thousand Soviet advisers supporting Ethiopia's communist

Derg The Derg or Dergue (, ), officially the Provisional Military Administrative Council (PMAC), was the military junta that ruled Ethiopia, including present-day Eritrea, from 1974 to 1987, when they formally "Civil government, civilianized" the ...

regime. On 15 March 1978, a

ceasefire A ceasefire (also known as a truce), also spelled cease-fire (the antonym of 'open fire'), is a stoppage of a war in which each side agrees with the other to suspend aggressive actions often due to mediation by a third party. Ceasefires may b ...

was negotiated, bringing an end to the war. This shift in Soviet support prompted the Barre government to seek new allies, eventually turning to the United States, which had been courting Somalia for some time as a counter to Soviet influence. Ultimately, Somalia's initial alliance with the Soviet Union and subsequent partnership with the United States enabled it to build the largest army in Africa.Oliver Ramsbotham, Tom Woodhouse, ''Encyclopedia of International Peacekeeping Operations'', (ABC-CLIO: 1999), p. 222.

New constitution

A new Constitution was ratified on 25 August 1979 through a

popular referendum A popular referendum, depending on jurisdiction also known as a citizens' veto, people's veto, veto referendum, citizen referendum, abrogative referendum, rejective referendum, suspensive referendum, and statute referendum,Maija SetäläReferend ...

, leading to elections for a People's Assembly. This Constitution established a presidential system, wherein the president served as both the head of state and the head of government. As head of government, the president appointed the members of the

Council of Ministers Council of Ministers is a traditional name given to the supreme Executive (government), executive organ in some governments. It is usually equivalent to the term Cabinet (government), cabinet. The term Council of State is a similar name that also m ...

, which he chaired. Initially, the Constitution stipulated that the president would be elected for a six-year renewable term by a two-thirds majority vote of the legislature.

Decline

After the failed Ogaden campaign, Barre's administration began arresting government and military officials suspected of involvement in the 1978 coup attempt.''ARR: Arab report and record'', (Economic Features, ltd.: 1978), p. 602. Most of those believed to have participated in the plot were executed without trial.New People Media Centre, ''New people'', Issues 94–105, (New People Media Centre: Comboni Missionaries, 2005). However, several officials managed to escape abroad and began forming various dissident groups aimed at forcibly removing Barre's regime.Nina J. Fitzgerald, ''Somalia: issues, history, and bibliography'', (Nova Publishers: 2002), p. 25. In 1979, a new constitution was introduced, leading to elections for a People's Assembly. Despite this, Barre's Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party (SRSP) continued to maintain control. In October 1980, the SRSP was disbanded, and the Supreme Revolutionary Council was re-established in its place. By this time, Barre's government had become increasingly unpopular, and many Somalis were disillusioned with life under

military dictatorship A military dictatorship, or a military regime, is a type of dictatorship in which Power (social and political), power is held by one or more military officers. Military dictatorships are led by either a single military dictator, known as a Polit ...

. The regime weakened further in the 80's as the Cold War drew to a close, diminishing Somalia's strategic importance. The government's

totalitarian Totalitarianism is a political system and a form of government that prohibits opposition from political parties, disregards and outlaws the political claims of individual and group opposition to the state, and completely controls the public sph ...

grip culminated in the Isaaq genocide (1987–1988), which devastated several major cities and targeted members of the

Isaaq The Isaaq (, , ''Banu Ishaq'') is a major Somali clans, Somali clan. It is one of the largest Somali clan families in the Horn of Africa, with a large and densely populated traditional territory. The Isaaq people claim in a traditional legend ...

clan. Civilian death estimates range from 50,000 to 100,000 up to over 200,000. These brutal tactics sparked

resistance movement A resistance movement is an organized group of people that tries to resist or try to overthrow a government or an occupying power, causing disruption and unrest in civil order and stability. Such a movement may seek to achieve its goals through ei ...

s, supported by Ethiopia, that emerged across the country and eventually led to the

Somali Civil War The Somali Civil War (; ) is an List of ongoing armed conflicts, ongoing civil war that is taking place in Somalia. It grew out of resistance to the military junta which was led by Siad Barre during the 1980s. From 1988 to 1990, the Somali Armed ...

. Among these militia groups were the Somali Salvation Democratic Front (SSDF), the

United Somali Congress The United Somali Congress (USC, ) was one of the major rebel organizations in Somalia. Formed in 1989, it played a leading role in the ouster of the government of Siad Barre in 1991. Following infighting, the USC later splintered into two win ...

(USC), the

Somali National Movement The Somali National Movement (, ) was one of the first and most important Guerrilla warfare, organized guerilla groups and Mujahideen groups that opposed the Siad Barre regime in the 1980s to the 1990s, as well as being the main anti-government f ...

(SNM), and the Somali Patriotic Movement (SPM), alongside non-violent political opposition such as the Somali Democratic Movement (SDM), the Somali Democratic Alliance (SDA) and the Somali Manifesto Group (SMG). On 26 January 1991, Barre was ousted from power, and Somalia subsequently descended into chaos.

Government

The Somali Democratic Republic functioned as a unitary republic under the Marxist-Leninist single-party rule of first the Supreme Revolutionary Council, then the Somali Revolutionary Socialist Party. Siad Barre, as president, exercised totalitarian control through a military dictatorship.

President

* Mohamed Siyaad Barre (October 21, 1969 – January 26, 1991)

Prime Ministers

*Mohamed Farah Salad (November 1, 1969 – March 1970) *''Post abolished (March 1970 – February 1, 1987)'' * Muhammad Ali Samatar (February 1, 1987 – September 3, 1990) * Muhammad Hawadle Madar (September 3, 1990 – January 24, 1991)