Siege Of Utica (204 BC)
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The siege of Utica took place from 204 to 201 BC when a Roman army under Publius Cornelius Scipio attempted to seize the port to use as a secure base from which to defeat the
Carthaginian Empire Ancient Carthage ( ; , ) was an Ancient Semitic-speaking peoples, ancient Semitic civilisation based in North Africa. Initially a settlement in present-day Tunisia, it later became a city-state, and then an empire. Founded by the Phoenicians ...
in its North African homeland. The
First Punic War The First Punic War (264–241 BC) was the first of three wars fought between Rome and Carthage, the two main powers of the western Mediterranean in the early 3rd century BC. For 23 years, in the longest continuous conflict and grea ...
was fought between Carthage and
Rome Rome (Italian language, Italian and , ) is the capital city and most populated (municipality) of Italy. It is also the administrative centre of the Lazio Regions of Italy, region and of the Metropolitan City of Rome. A special named with 2, ...
for 23 years, from 264 to 241 BC. After a 23-year
interbellum In the history of the 20th century, the interwar period, also known as the interbellum (), lasted from 11 November 1918 to 1 September 1939 (20 years, 9 months, 21 days) – from the end of World War I (WWI) to the beginning of World War II ( ...
, war broke out again in 218 BC as the
Second Punic War The Second Punic War (218 to 201 BC) was the second of Punic Wars, three wars fought between Ancient Carthage, Carthage and Roman Republic, Rome, the two main powers of the western Mediterranean Basin, Mediterranean in the 3rd century BC. For ...
. After a further 13 years of war Scipio, Rome's most successful commander, was assigned to
Sicily Sicily (Italian language, Italian and ), officially the Sicilian Region (), is an island in the central Mediterranean Sea, south of the Italian Peninsula in continental Europe and is one of the 20 regions of Italy, regions of Italy. With 4. ...
with the intention of invading the Carthaginian homeland in
North Africa North Africa (sometimes Northern Africa) is a region encompassing the northern portion of the African continent. There is no singularly accepted scope for the region. However, it is sometimes defined as stretching from the Atlantic shores of t ...
. Scipio's army landed in North Africa in 204 BC, pillaged a large area and laid siege to the port-city of Utica, intending to use it as a permanent base and a harbour proof against the winter weather. Scipio expected the city to surrender readily, but despite being attacked fiercely from land and sea it held out; the garrison and citizens assuming they would be relieved from Carthage. A large Carthaginian army, supported by a larger force of allied
Numidians The Numidians were the Berber population of Numidia (present-day Algeria). The Numidians were originally a semi-nomadic people, they migrated frequently as nomads usually do, but during certain seasons of the year, they would return to the same ...
set up camp south of Utica. This caused the Romans to break off the siege and withdraw into their own camp for the winter. In the spring, while feigning that he was renewing the siege of Utica, Scipio launched night attacks on the enemy camps, wiping out both armies. The Carthaginian army reassembled from Utica, but the Romans marched to meet them, leaving the siege largely in the hands of the navy. At the
battle of the Great Plains The battle of the Great Plains was fought in 203 BC in modern Tunisia between a Roman army commanded by Publius Cornelius Scipio, and allied Carthaginian and Numidian armies commanded by Hasdrubal Gisco and Syphax respectively. The battle was ...
the Carthaginians were again badly beaten. The Roman army marched on
Tunis Tunis (, ') is the capital city, capital and largest city of Tunisia. The greater metropolitan area of Tunis, often referred to as "Grand Tunis", has about 2,700,000 inhabitants. , it is the third-largest city in the Maghreb region (after Casabl ...
, in time to see the Carthaginian fleet sail from Carthage to relieve Utica. When it arrived the Carthaginians found that the Roman fleet had adopted a novel formation which they were unable to overcome; they retreated after a day's fighting. Hannibal was then recalled from Italy and Scipio set out to meet him, again leaving the siege to be prosecuted by the Roman navy. Hannibal's army was annihilated at the
battle of Zama The Battle of Zama was fought in 202 BC in what is now Tunisia between a Roman Republic, Roman army commanded by Scipio Africanus and a Ancient Carthage, Carthaginian army commanded by Hannibal. The battle was part of the Second Punic War an ...
and the Carthaginians sued for peace. The Romans enforced harsh terms in the subsequent peace treaty, agreed in 201 BC, although they did leave North Africa and Utica remained a Carthaginian city.


Background


First Punic War

The
First Punic War The First Punic War (264–241 BC) was the first of three wars fought between Rome and Carthage, the two main powers of the western Mediterranean in the early 3rd century BC. For 23 years, in the longest continuous conflict and grea ...
was fought between the two main powers of the western
Mediterranean The Mediterranean Sea ( ) is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the east by the Levant in West Asia, on the north by Anatolia in West Asia and Southern ...
in the 3rd century BC:
Carthage Carthage was an ancient city in Northern Africa, on the eastern side of the Lake of Tunis in what is now Tunisia. Carthage was one of the most important trading hubs of the Ancient Mediterranean and one of the most affluent cities of the classic ...
and
Rome Rome (Italian language, Italian and , ) is the capital city and most populated (municipality) of Italy. It is also the administrative centre of the Lazio Regions of Italy, region and of the Metropolitan City of Rome. A special named with 2, ...
. The war lasted for 23 years, from 264 to 241 BC, and was fought primarily on the Mediterranean island of
Sicily Sicily (Italian language, Italian and ), officially the Sicilian Region (), is an island in the central Mediterranean Sea, south of the Italian Peninsula in continental Europe and is one of the 20 regions of Italy, regions of Italy. With 4. ...
, its surrounding waters and in
North Africa North Africa (sometimes Northern Africa) is a region encompassing the northern portion of the African continent. There is no singularly accepted scope for the region. However, it is sometimes defined as stretching from the Atlantic shores of t ...
. The Carthaginians were defeated and by the terms of the Treaty of Lutatius evacuated Sicily and paid Rome an
indemnity In contract law, an indemnity is a contractual obligation of one party (the ''indemnitor'') to compensate the loss incurred by another party (the ''indemnitee'') due to the relevant acts of the indemnitor or any other party. The duty to indemni ...
of 3,200 silver talents over ten years. Four years later, Rome seized
Sardinia Sardinia ( ; ; ) is the Mediterranean islands#By area, second-largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, after Sicily, and one of the Regions of Italy, twenty regions of Italy. It is located west of the Italian Peninsula, north of Tunisia an ...
and
Corsica Corsica ( , , ; ; ) is an island in the Mediterranean Sea and one of the Regions of France, 18 regions of France. It is the List of islands in the Mediterranean#By area, fourth-largest island in the Mediterranean and lies southeast of the Metro ...
on a cynical pretence and imposed a further 1,200 talent indemnity, actions which fuelled Carthaginian resentment.


Second Punic War

In early 218 BC, after a period of deteriorating relations, Rome declared war on Carthage, starting the
Second Punic War The Second Punic War (218 to 201 BC) was the second of Punic Wars, three wars fought between Ancient Carthage, Carthage and Roman Republic, Rome, the two main powers of the western Mediterranean Basin, Mediterranean in the 3rd century BC. For ...
.
Hannibal Hannibal (; ; 247 – between 183 and 181 BC) was a Punic people, Carthaginian general and statesman who commanded the forces of Ancient Carthage, Carthage in their battle against the Roman Republic during the Second Punic War. Hannibal's fat ...
, the de facto ruler of Carthaginian Iberia, led a large Carthaginian army through
Gaul Gaul () was a region of Western Europe first clearly described by the Roman people, Romans, encompassing present-day France, Belgium, Luxembourg, and parts of Switzerland, the Netherlands, Germany, and Northern Italy. It covered an area of . Ac ...
, over the Alps and invaded mainland Italy in late 218 BC. During the next three years Hannibal inflicted heavy defeats on the Romans at the battles of the Trebia, Lake Trasimene and
Cannae Cannae (now , ) is an ancient village of the region of south east Italy. It is a (civil parish) of the (municipality) of . Cannae was formerly a bishopric, and is a Latin Catholic titular see (as of 2022). Geography The commune of Cannae i ...
. At the last of these alone, at least 67,500 Romans were killed or captured. These great military calamities brought Rome to the brink of collapse. Hannibal's army campaigned in Italy for the following 14 years. In 210BC Publius Cornelius Scipio took command of Roman forces in
Iberia The Iberian Peninsula ( ), also known as Iberia, is a peninsula in south-western Europe. Mostly separated from the rest of the European landmass by the Pyrenees, it includes the territories of peninsular Spain and Continental Portugal, compri ...
(modern Spain and Portugal) and in a carefully planned assault in 209BC captured the centre of Carthaginian power in Iberia, New Carthage. During the following four years Scipio repeatedly defeated the Carthaginians and drove them out of Iberia in 205 BC.


Prelude

In early 205 BC Scipio left Iberia, returned to Rome and was elected to the senior position of consul. Scipio had anticipated an invasion of North Africa while still in Spain and so had opened negotiations with the Numidian leaders whose North African lands lay to the west of Carthaginian territory,
Masinissa Masinissa (''c.'' 238 BC – 148 BC), also spelled Massinissa, Massena and Massan, was an ancient Numidian king best known for leading a federation of Massylii Berber tribes during the Second Punic War (218–201 BC), ultimately uniting the ...
and
Syphax Syphax (, ''Sýphax''; , ) was a king of the Masaesyli tribe of western Numidia (present-day Algeria) during the last quarter of the 3rd century BC. His story is told in Livy's ''Ab Urbe Condita'' (written c. 27–25 BC).
. He failed to win over the latter, but made an ally of the former. After intense political debate in the Roman Senate Scipio, Rome's most successful commander, was given Sicily as his consular province. Sicily was the best location for the Romans to launch an invasion of the Carthaginian homeland from and then logistically support it. He was given permission to cross to Africa on his own judgement; but Roman commitment was less than wholehearted, Scipio could not conscript troops for his consular army, as was usual, only call for volunteers. The total number of men available to Scipio and how many of them travelled to Africa is unclear; the ancient historian
Livy Titus Livius (; 59 BC – AD 17), known in English as Livy ( ), was a Roman historian. He wrote a monumental history of Rome and the Roman people, titled , covering the period from the earliest legends of Rome before the traditional founding i ...
gives totals for the invasion force of either 12,200, 17,600 or 35,000. Modern historians estimate a combat strength of 25,000–30,000, of whom more than 90% were infantry. With up to half of the complement of his legions being fresh volunteers, and with no fighting having taken place on Sicily for the past five years, Scipio instigated a rigorous training regime. This lasted for approximately a year. At the same time a vast quantity of food and
materiel Materiel or matériel (; ) is supplies, equipment, and weapons in military supply-chain management, and typically supplies and equipment in a commerce, commercial supply chain management, supply chain context. Military In a military context, ...
was gathered, and large numbers of
merchant ship A merchant ship, merchant vessel, trading vessel, or merchantman is a watercraft that transports cargo or carries passengers for hire. This is in contrast to pleasure craft, which are used for personal recreation, and naval ships, which are ...
s to transport it and his troops, and warships to escort the transports were assembled.


Siege

In 204 BC, probably June or July, the Roman army left Sicily in 400 transport ships, escorted by 40
galley A galley is a type of ship optimised for propulsion by oars. Galleys were historically used for naval warfare, warfare, Maritime transport, trade, and piracy mostly in the seas surrounding Europe. It developed in the Mediterranean world during ...
s. Three days later they disembarked at
Cape Farina Cape Farina () is a headland in Bizerte Governorate, Tunisia. It forms the northwestern end of the Gulf of Tunis. The Tunisian towns of Ghar el-Melh (the ancient Castra Delia), Rafraf, Lahmeri, and the beach of Plage Sidi Ali Mekki Est are locate ...
north of the large Carthaginian port of Utica. The locals fled and the area was pillaged; 8,000 captives were sent back to Sicily as slaves. Carthage's immediate response, a scouting party of 500 cavalry, was defeated with the loss of its commander and the general in overall charge of responding to the invasion. Masinissa joined the Romans with either 200 or 2,000 men, the sources differ. Wanting a more permanent base, and a port which would be resilient to the bad weather to be expected when winter came, Scipio
besiege A siege () . is a military blockade of a city, or fortress, with the intent of conquering by attrition, or by well-prepared assault. Siege warfare (also called siegecrafts or poliorcetics) is a form of constant, low-intensity conflict characte ...
d Utica. At the time Utica was a major port, although it is now inland because of the silting up of the
Medjerda River The Medjerda River (), the classical antiquity, classical Bagradas, is a river in North Africa flowing from northeast Algeria through Tunisia before emptying into the Gulf of Tunis and Lake of Tunis. With a length of , it is the longest river of ...
then known as the River Bagradas. The Romans were well supplied with
siege engine A siege engine is a device that is designed to break or circumvent heavy castle doors, thick city walls and other fortifications in siege warfare. Some are immobile, constructed in place to attack enemy fortifications from a distance, while othe ...
s as they had shipped many from Sicily and also fabricated more on the spot. Scipio expected the city to surrender readily, but despite being attacked fiercely from land and sea it held out. The garrison and citizens of Utica assumed they would be relieved from Carthage, although the Carthaginian navy made no attempt to challenge the Roman control of the sea. Meanwhile, the Romans pillaged an ever-wider area, sending more loot and prisoners to Sicily in the ships bringing their supplies. The siege continued until a Carthaginian army of 33,000 men under
Hasdrubal Gisco Hasdrubal Gisco (died 202BC), a latinization of the name ʿAzrubaʿal son of Gersakkun (),. was a Carthaginian general who fought against Rome in Iberia (Hispania) and North Africa during the Second Punic War. Biography Hasdrubal Gisco was sen ...
set up a fortified camp south of Utica. Syphax joined him, establishing his own camp away with a reported 60,000 troops. The size of both of these armies as reported by ancient historians have been questioned by their modern counterparts as being infeasibly large. Nevertheless, it is accepted that the Romans were considerably outnumbered, in particular in terms of cavalry. The arrival of these armies caused the Romans to break off their close investment of Utica after forty days. They pulled back to a fortified camp on a rocky peninsula near
Ghar el-Melh Ghar el-Melh (, ''Ghar al-Milh'', "Salt Grotto"), the classical Rusucmona and CastraDelia and colonial is a town and former port on the southern side of Cape Farina in Bizerte Governorate, Tunisia. History Phoenician colony The Phoenician set ...
which was known as , about east of the city. The three armies stayed in their camps throughout the winter, although emissaries were exchanged and negotiations to either end the war or to facilitate a Roman withdrawal from Africa took place. In early spring the Romans started conspicuously reassembling and testing their siege equipment, mounting some engines on ships. A force of 2,000 men returned to a hill overlooking Utica and started repairing the siegeworks constructed the previous autumn. Scipio assembled his troops and made an announcement that he would shortly attempt to storm the defences of Utica. While the Roman navy demonstrated off Utica Scipio briefed his senior officers that in fact they were going to launch night attacks on the enemy camps. The repeated visits to the Carthaginian and Numidian camps for negotiations during the winter had been used to observe their layout and approaches.


Battle of Utica

On the night of the attack two columns set out: one was commanded by Gaius Laelius, a legate and the Roman army's second in command, who had years of experience of operating under Scipio. This force consisted of about half the Romans and was accompanied by the Masinissa's Numidians. Its target was Syphax's camp. Scipio led the balance of the Roman force against the Carthaginian camp. Thanks to careful prior reconnoitring both forces reached the positions from which they were to start their attacks without problems, while Masinissa's Numidian cavalry positioned themselves in small groups so as to cover every route out of the two enemy camps. Laelius's column attacked first, storming the camp of Syphax's Numidians and concentrating on setting fire to as many of the reed huts housing them as possible. The camp dissolved into chaos, with many of its Numidian occupants oblivious of the Roman attack and thinking the barracks had caught fire accidentally. The Carthaginians heard the commotion and saw the blaze; some of them set off to help extinguish the fire, also thinking it was accidental. Scipio's contingent then attacked; they cut down the Carthaginians heading for their ally's camp, stormed Hasdrubal's camp and set fire to its wooden huts used for housing. The fire spread between the close-spaced barracks. Carthaginians rushed out into the dark and confusion, without armour or weapons, either trying to escape the flames or to fight the fire. The organised and prepared Romans were at a great advantage and Carthaginian casualties were high. Hasdrubal escaped from his burning camp with only 2,500 men. Losses among Syphax's Numidians are not recorded.


Battle of the Great Plains

When word of the defeat reached Carthage there was panic, with some wanting to renew the peace negotiations. A decision was reached to fight on with locally available resources. Syphax remained loyal and joined Hasdrubal with what was left of his army. Hasdrubal raised further local troops with whom to reinforce the survivors of Utica. The combined force is estimated to have been 30,000 strong and they established a fortified camp on an area of flat ground by the Bagradas River known as the Great Plains. This was near modern Souk el Kremis and about from Utica. Hearing of this, Scipio marched most of his army to the scene, leaving a small force and the navy to continue the siege of Utica. The size of his army is not known, but it was outnumbered by the Carthaginians. After several days of skirmishing both armies committed to a pitched battle. Upon being charged by the Romans all of those Carthaginians who had been involved in the debacle at Utica turned and fled; morale had not recovered. Only the new recruits stood and fought; they were enveloped by the well-drilled Roman legions and wiped out. Hasdrubal fled to Carthage, where he was demoted and exiled. A large Roman detachment pursued Syphax west. His army was defeated again at the
Battle of Cirta A battle is an occurrence of combat in warfare between opposing military units of any number or size. A war usually consists of multiple battles. In general, a battle is a military engagement that is well defined in duration, area, and force co ...
and Syphax was captured. The main Roman army moved slowly east, devastating the countryside and capturing and sacking many towns. They then based themselves in
Tunis Tunis (, ') is the capital city, capital and largest city of Tunisia. The greater metropolitan area of Tunis, often referred to as "Grand Tunis", has about 2,700,000 inhabitants. , it is the third-largest city in the Maghreb region (after Casabl ...
, which had been abandoned by its Carthaginian garrison; Tunis was only from the city of
Carthage Carthage was an ancient city in Northern Africa, on the eastern side of the Lake of Tunis in what is now Tunisia. Carthage was one of the most important trading hubs of the Ancient Mediterranean and one of the most affluent cities of the classic ...
. This cut Carthage off from its
hinterland Hinterland is a German word meaning the 'land behind' a city, a port, or similar. Its use in English was first documented by the geographer George Chisholm in his ''Handbook of Commercial Geography'' (1888). Originally the term was associated wi ...
.


Naval battle

Over the winter the Carthaginians had increased the number of equipped and crewed war
galley A galley is a type of ship optimised for propulsion by oars. Galleys were historically used for naval warfare, warfare, Maritime transport, trade, and piracy mostly in the seas surrounding Europe. It developed in the Mediterranean world during ...
s they had, and now felt ready to challenge the Romans at sea. The Carthaginians were aware that many of the Roman ships had been adapted to carry out siege operations, rather than to fight ship to ship. At some point while the Roman army was in Tunis the Carthaginian fleet left port and sailed for Utica, intending to lift the siege and hoping to wipe out the Roman fleet while doing so. Roman scouts observed the Carthaginian galleys departing and sailing north and Scipio realised the threat they posed to his fleet. He sent messengers to alert the Roman ships; or by some accounts rode to Utica himself to raise the alarm. The Roman legions followed in a rapid march. Although Utica is only north of Carthage, the Carthaginian ships did not arrive until the next morning. Possibly they paused to allow the crews of each ship some practice at working as a unit and the ships similarly as squadrons. By the time they arrived the Romans had expediently lashed the whole of their fleet into one unit, with several ranks of transports in front of the specialist war galleys. On the foremost row of transports were 1,000 soldiers with a large supply of javelins. Each rank of transport ships had a passageway installed running its length, making it easy for these marines to move from one point of danger to another. The Carthaginian fleet attacked shortly after sunrise, but the improvised Roman formation frustrated the Carthaginians, who had imagined their galleys would have to fight their way past their Roman counterparts in the open sea, at which point the Roman transports would scatter. Instead they faced a tight-locked wall of transports, whose higher freeboard meant the Carthaginians had to improvise grappling hooks or ladders to
board Board or Boards may refer to: Flat surface * Lumber, or other rigid material, milled or sawn flat ** Plank (wood) ** Cutting board ** Sounding board, of a musical instrument * Cardboard (paper product) * Paperboard * Fiberboard ** Hardboard, a ...
them. Meanwhile the Roman marines could hurl javelins down onto the open decks of the Carthaginian galleys from relatively protected positions. By the end of the day the Carthaginians had managed to capture, cut loose, and tow away 60 Roman transports. This may have been the whole of the front rank of Roman transport ships, but the Carthaginians had had enough of the fight. They made their way back to Carthage with their captives, leaving the majority of the transports and all of the Roman war galleys unscathed.


Peace

Scipio and the Carthaginian Senate entered into peace negotiations, while Carthage recalled Hannibal from Italy. The Roman Senate ratified a draft treaty, but because of mistrust of the Romans and a surge in confidence when Hannibal arrived from Italy, Carthage repudiated it. Hannibal was placed in command of another army, formed of veterans from Italy and newly raised troops from Africa, with 80
war elephant A war elephant is an elephant that is Animal training, trained and guided by humans for combat purposes. Historically, the war elephant's main use was to charge (warfare), charge the enemy, break their ranks, and instill terror and fear. Elep ...
s but few cavalry. The decisive
battle of Zama The Battle of Zama was fought in 202 BC in what is now Tunisia between a Roman Republic, Roman army commanded by Scipio Africanus and a Ancient Carthage, Carthaginian army commanded by Hannibal. The battle was part of the Second Punic War an ...
followed in October 202BC. After a prolonged fight the Carthaginian army collapsed; Hannibal was one of the few to escape the field. The Romans marched back to , where they were again resupplied from Sicily, then again to Tunis. The Carthaginians again
sued for peace Suing for peace is an act by a warring party to initiate a peace process. Rationales "Suing for", in this older sense of the phrase, means "pleading or petitioning for". Suing for peace is usually initiated by the losing party in an attempt to ...
. Given the difficulty of ending the war by storming or starving the city of Carthage, and his fear that he might be superseded in command, Scipio entered into negotiations. The peace treaty the Romans subsequently imposed on the Carthaginians stripped them of their overseas territories and some of their African ones. An indemnity of 10,000 silver talents was to be paid over 50 years, hostages were taken, Carthage was forbidden to possess war elephants and its fleet was restricted to 10 warships. It was prohibited from waging war outside Africa and in Africa only with Rome's express permission. Many senior Carthaginians wanted to reject it, but Hannibal spoke strongly in its favour and it was accepted in spring 201BC. Henceforth it was clear Carthage was politically subordinate to Rome. The siege of Utica had been lifted at some point prior to this after over two years of siege or blockade; it remained a Carthaginian city.


Aftermath

Scipio was awarded a triumph and received the "Africanus". Hannibal became the Suffete (chief
magistrate The term magistrate is used in a variety of systems of governments and laws to refer to a civilian officer who administers the law. In ancient Rome, a '' magistratus'' was one of the highest ranking government officers, and possessed both judi ...
) of Carthage and helped to rebuild its economic prosperity. In 195 BC he was driven into exile by the Romans. Masinissa exploited the prohibition on Carthage waging war to repeatedly raid and seize Carthaginian territory with impunity. Carthage appealed to Rome, which always backed its Numidian ally. In 149 BC Carthage sent an army against Masinissa, the treaty notwithstanding. This sparked the
Third Punic War The Third Punic War (149–146 BC) was the third and last of the Punic Wars fought between Carthage and Rome. The war was fought entirely within Carthaginian territory, in what is now northern Tunisia. When the Second Punic War ended in 20 ...
later that year. Utica immediately went over to Rome and was used as a base for a Roman invasion of North Africa and a siege of Carthage. In the spring of 146 BC the Romans captured the city of Carthage and systematically destroyed it, killing or enslaving its inhabitants. The formerly Carthaginian territories were annexed by Rome and reconstituted to become the
Roman province of Africa Africa was a Roman province on the northern coast of the continent of Africa. It was established in 146 BC, following the Roman Republic's conquest of Carthage in the Third Punic War. It roughly comprised the territory of present-day Tunisi ...
with Utica as its capital.


Notes, citations and sources


Notes


Citations


Sources

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * {{coord missing, Tunisia Utica Utica (204 BC) 204 BC Utica (204 BC) Utica 204 Battles involving Numidia