Siege Of Suiyang
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The siege of Suiyang was a military campaign during the
An Lushan rebellion The An Lushan rebellion was a civil war in China that lasted from 755 to 763, at the approximate midpoint of the Tang dynasty (618–907). It began as a commandery rebellion attempting to overthrow and replace the Tang government with the rogue ...
, launched by the rebel Yan army to capture the city of Suiyang from forces loyal to the
Tang dynasty The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, c=唐朝), or the Tang Empire, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907, with an Wu Zhou, interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed ...
. Although the battle was ultimately won by the Yan army, it suffered major attrition of manpower and time. The siege was noted for the Tang army's determination to fight to the last man, as well as the large-scale
cannibalism Cannibalism is the act of consuming another individual of the same species as food. Cannibalism is a common ecological interaction in the animal kingdom and has been recorded in more than 1,500 species. Human cannibalism is also well document ...
practised by the defenders, who in this way were able to hold out longer.


Background

The
An Lushan rebellion The An Lushan rebellion was a civil war in China that lasted from 755 to 763, at the approximate midpoint of the Tang dynasty (618–907). It began as a commandery rebellion attempting to overthrow and replace the Tang government with the rogue ...
began in December 755. By the end of 756, the rebel Yan army had captured most of
northern China Northern China () and Southern China () are two approximate regions that display certain differences in terms of their geography, demographics, economy, and culture. Extent The Qinling, Qinling–Daba Mountains serve as the transition zone ...
, which then included both Tang capitals,
Chang'an Chang'an (; zh, t=長安, s=长安, p=Cháng'ān, first=t) is the traditional name of the city now named Xi'an and was the capital of several Chinese dynasties, ranging from 202 BCE to 907 CE. The site has been inhabited since Neolithic time ...
and
Luoyang Luoyang ( zh, s=洛阳, t=洛陽, p=Luòyáng) is a city located in the confluence area of the Luo River and the Yellow River in the west of Henan province, China. Governed as a prefecture-level city, it borders the provincial capital of Zheng ...
, and was home to the majority of the empire's population. The
Yangtze The Yangtze or Yangzi ( or ) is the longest river in Eurasia and the third-longest in the world. It rises at Jari Hill in the Tanggula Mountains of the Tibetan Plateau and flows including Dam Qu River the longest source of the Yangtze, i ...
basin had thus become the main base of the Tang dynasty's war efforts. In January 757, the newly self-proclaimed Yan emperor
An Qingxu An Qingxu () (730s – 10 April 759), né An Renzhi (), was a son of An Lushan, a general of the Chinese Tang dynasty who rebelled and took the imperial title, and then established his own state of Yan. An Qingxu served as the Prince of Jin i ...
ordered general () to join forces with general
Yang Chaozong Yang may refer to: * Yang, in yin and yang, one half of the two symbolic polarities in Chinese philosophy * Korean yang, former unit of currency of Korea from 1892 to 1902 * YANG, a data modeling language for the NETCONF network configuration pr ...
() and besiege Suiyang (present-day
Shangqiu Shangqiu ( zh, ), Postal romanization, alternately romanized as Shangkiu, is a city in eastern Henan province, Central China. It borders Kaifeng to the northwest, Zhoukou to the southwest, and the provinces of Shandong and Anhui to the northeast ...
, Henan). Suiyang was a city on the Tang-era course of the Grand Canal, sitting midway between the major cities
Kaifeng Kaifeng ( zh, s=开封, p=Kāifēng) is a prefecture-level city in east-Zhongyuan, central Henan province, China. It is one of the Historical capitals of China, Eight Ancient Capitals of China, having been the capital eight times in history, and ...
and
Xuzhou Xuzhou ( zh, s=徐州), also known as Pengcheng () in ancient times, is a major city in northwestern Jiangsu province, China. The city, with a recorded population of 9,083,790 at the 2020 Chinese census, 2020 census (3,135,660 of which lived in ...
. The city, therefore, formed a major obstacle for the rebels on the route from the capitals to the southeastern coast, the
breadbasket The breadbasket of a country or of a region is an area which, because of the richness of the soil and/or advantageous climate, produces large quantities of wheat or other grain. Rice bowl is a similar term used to refer to Southeast Asia; Calif ...
of the Tang dynasty. The administrator of Suiyang Prefecture at the time, (), requested help from garrisons in neighbouring cities. At the time,
Zhang Xun Zhang Xun (; September 16, 1854 – September 11, 1923), courtesy name Shaoxuan (), art name Songshou Laoren (), nickname Bianshuai (, ), was a Chinese general and Qing loyalist who attempted to restore the abdicated emperor Puyi in the Manch ...
, formerly a county magistrate serving in the Tang government, was the leader of volunteer defenders in
Yongqiu Qi County or Qixian () is a county of Kaifeng, Henan, People's Republic of China, with an area of 1243 square km and a population of 1.05 million. History From Shang to Western Zhou, Qi County was the place of the State of Qi. In Qin dynasty, Qi ...
. The Tang had granted him the title deputy ''
jiedushi The ''jiedushi'' (, Old Turkic: Tarduş) or jiedu, was a regional military governor in China; the title was established in the Tang dynasty and abolished in the Yuan dynasty. The post of ''jiedushi'' has been translated as "military commissi ...
'' of Henan but could not provide any reinforcement or logistic support. Zhang had held off a rebel siege on his city in the previous year. However, as cities in the area fell one by one, Zhang quickly realized that his position in Yongqiu was becoming untenable. Recognizing the strategic importance of Suiyang, he led 3,000 men to aid its defence, bringing the total number of defenders to 6,800. Once he arrived, Zhang Xun took over the military leadership of Suiyang. (), the county magistrate of Chengfu, also arrived to help lead the defence of Suiyang. Meanwhile, Yin Ziqi mustered a huge army (estimated at 130,000 men) and started besieging the city in late January.


Timeline

The united army of Zhang Xun and Xu Yuan, around 6,800 men, prepared to defend Suiyang with their lives. Xu Yuan focused on supplies management and after-battle repairs. Zhang Xun, on the other hand, focused on battle tactics. Despite daily attacks by the Yan army, the Tang soldiers did not give up. Zhang Xun's troops played the
battle drums Military drums or war drums are all kinds of drums and membranophones that have been used for martial music, including military communications, as well as parade (military), drill, honors music, and military ceremonies. History Among ancie ...
during the night, acting as if they were going to fight. Consequently, the Yan army was forced to stand on guard at night and suffered from lack of sleep. Eventually, some troops did not bother to put on their armour when they heard these battle drums and kept sleeping. After the Yan army lowered their defences, Zhang Xun sent a dozen generals, including the famed archer () and (), to lead 50 cavalry each in an attack on the enemy camp. The ambush was successful, and 5,000 Yan troops were slaughtered. Zhang Xun had long wanted to give Yan morale a significant blow, and the best way to do this would be to hurt or kill Yan general Yin Ziqi. However, Zhang Xun did not know what Yin Ziqi looked like, nor would he be in a mix of soldiers. Zhang Xun, therefore, turned to psychology. He ordered his troops to shoot weeds, instead of arrows, at a few enemy soldiers. When these soldiers noticed they were being hit by weeds and left unharmed, they were overjoyed. They promptly ran to Yin Ziqi to report that the Tang army had already run out of arrows. Zhang Xun noticed where the soldiers ran and ordered his best archer, Nan Jiyun, to shoot at Yin Ziqi. One such arrow hit Yin Ziqi in his left eye, throwing the Yan army instantly into chaos. The siege ended with the expected significant blow to Yan morale. After 16 days of siege and ambush, the Yan army had reportedly already lost 20,000 men. Yin Ziqi decided his army was too tired to fight, so he ordered a temporary retreat to regroup. Two months later, Yin Ziqi returned to besiege Suiyang with an additional 20,000 fresh troops. He began the final and ultimately successful siege early in the seventh lunar month of 757, continuing it until the city fell four months later. Originally, Xu Yuan had prepared for the upcoming battle by storing a year's food inside Suiyang. However, the district governor insisted that he share the ample food supply with other nearby fortresses, and hence, the food supply became much less than what Xu Yuan originally planned. By July, the Tang soldiers had fallen into a severe food shortage. Tang soldiers were given tiny daily rations of rice. If they wanted more food, they would need to settle for whatever animals, insects, and tree roots could be found in their vicinity. Yin Ziqi noticed the famine plaguing the Tang army and ordered more troops to surround Suiyang. He made many siege attempts with siege ladders, but they were all repelled by the determined Tang troops. With limited success, Yin Ziqi even used hooked-pulled carts to pull down the fortress's towers. The Tang soldiers could destroy the hook of these carts before significant damage was made. But even with the battle's success, Zhang Xun knew that with only around 1,600 soldiers left, and most of them sick or hungry, the battle would soon be a lost cause. By August, all the insects, animals, and vegetation in the besieged area had been eaten. Zhang Xun ordered 30 of his best soldiers under Nan Jiyun to break through and ask for help from nearby fortresses. Nan Jiyun and 26 others successfully broke through. However, none of the nearby local governors were willing to offer troops and food supplies. Finally, Nan Jiyun asked for help from (), governor of nearby Linhuai. Helan had long been jealous of Zhang Xun's abilities. He also wanted to preserve his forces, so he refused to assist Zhang Xun. Instead, he offered Nan Jiyun a large feast to convince him to join his ranks. Nan is said to have replied: Immediately after, Nan Jiyun cut off (or bit off, in some versions) one of his own fingers. Furious at Helan's inaction, he rode away, but not before shooting an arrow at the Buddha statue in a nearby temple and stating, "Once I return from defeating the enemy, I will definitely kill Helan! This arrow shows my resolve." Nan Jiyun's bravery finally convinced
Lian Huan Lian may refer to: Fiction * Gao Lian (''Water Margin''), a character in the ''Water Margin'' series of novels *Lian the Great (, ''Dalian''), a figure in Chinese mythology *Jia Lian, a character in the novel ''Dream of the Red Chamber'' People ...
, a local governor, to lend 3,000 soldiers to him. Both of them fought their way through the Yan army back into Suiyang. Fighting through the numerous ranks of the Yan army was damaging, and only about 1,000 soldiers from the outside made it inside the fortress. The starving Tang soldiers, about 1,600, fell into despair at the lack of outside help. Almost everyone tried to convince Zhang Xun to surrender or find some way to escape southward. Zhang Xun and Xu Yuan discussed this, and Xu Yuan concluded, "If Suiyang falls, Yan will be free to conquer the rest of southern China. And on top of it, most of our soldiers are too tired and hungry to run. The only choice we have left is to defend for as long as possible, and hope that a nearby governor will come and help us." Zhang Xun agreed with him. Zhang Xun told his remaining troops, "The nearby governors might be inelegant, but we cannot be disloyal. Another day that we can hold out is another day for the rest of the Tang to prepare defences. We will fight till the very end."


Cannibalism

When the inhabitants of the besieged city ran out of provisions, they started to eat tea and paper, then horses, and eventually "the aged, children and women". In their biographies of Zhang Xun, the '' Old'' and ''
New Book of Tang The ''New Book of Tang'', generally translated as the "New History of the Tang" or "New Tang History", is a work of official history covering the Tang dynasty in ten volumes and 225 chapters. The work was compiled by a team of scholars of the So ...
'' (finished between 945 and 1060) – the primary official dynastic histories covering the Tang period – estimate that about half of the original population of 60,000 people (including the troops) were
eaten Eating (also known as consuming) is the ingestion of food. In biology, this is typically done to provide a heterotrophic organism with energy and nutrients and to allow for growth. Animals and other heterotrophs must eat in order to survive – ...
. When the city finally fell, "there were only 400 survivors", all of whom were soldiers. No civilians seem to have survived. According to the ''Old Book of Tang'', Zhang Xun killed his own
concubine Concubinage is an interpersonal relationship, interpersonal and Intimate relationship, sexual relationship between two people in which the couple does not want to, or cannot, enter into a full marriage. Concubinage and marriage are often regarde ...
as food for the hungry soldiers to convince them that such extreme sacrifices were worth it. The historical sources also indicate that there were clear hierarchies, especially "of gender and age ... that determined who had to die and who might live": women (such as the concubine) were killed first, afterwards "old men and small boys followed", while men of fighting age were generally spared. The ''New Book of Tang'' contains a similar account of the events. The ''
Zizhi Tongjian The ''Zizhi Tongjian'' (1084) is a chronicle published during the Northern Song dynasty (960–1127) that provides a record of Chinese history from 403 BC to 959 AD, covering 16 dynasties and spanning almost 1400 years. The main text is ...
'', a work in chronicle format published a few decades after the ''New Book of Tang'', is largely in agreement with the Books of Tang, but also reconstructs a more detailed timeline of the siege, according to which food supplies started to run out in July, four months before the fall of the city. At that time, only 1,600 soldiers who started consuming tree bark and tea papers were left. One month later, the number of soldiers was down to 600. Around that time, they received relief from outside, but only 1,000 of the 3,000 newly sent soldiers made it into the city alive. With 200 enemy soldiers, Zhang was persuaded to rejoin the Tang forces; this brought the total back to around 1,800. The sources do not clearly indicate when the cannibalism began, but the words attributed by several of them to Nan Jiyun when requesting reinforcements suggest that it started in the seventh lunar month (approximately July), four months before the fall of the city. In contrast to the two ''Books of Tang'', the ''Zizhi Tongjian'' does not estimate how many were eaten. Considering the relatively low number of soldiers still alive during the last months of the siege, its authors may have considered the earlier claims of 30,000 eaten implausible. All primary sources that made specific estimates, however, put the numbers of eaten in the 10,000s. Li Han, a colleague and friend of Zhang Xun, argued shortly after the siege that "if Xun in the beginning of his defence had already planned to eat people and lose a few hundred for the purpose of eeping the empire together I would still say that merits and faults cancel each other out". Though this was a hypothetical reflection regarding what Zhang Xun's initial plans might have been, it has been interpreted by some as referring to the actual number of the eaten, leading them to the conclusion that the victim counts from later sources such as the ''Old Book of Tang'' were grossly inflated.易江波. "'人相食': 中国史中的一个固有表述及其法理." 人大法律评论 2 (2015): 139–155. According to the historian David A. Graff, the later numbers of several 10,000s eaten are indeed "open to question" because, while there might have been 60,000 people in the city at the start of the siege, any food supplies "would have gone to the combatants on a priority basis", hence many civilians "would presumably already have died of starvation or fallen victim to 'unofficial' cannibalism by the time that the garrison began to eat human flesh". While cannibalism during sieges and famines was not unusual, this case was nevertheless "noteworthy" not only because of its apparently considerable scale, but also because it was "an organized and systematic logistical operation carried out by the soldiers of the garrison" under Zhang Xun's command, as Graff notes.


Fall of Suiyang

The Tang soldiers fought until fewer than 400 of them were alive, but so weak that they lacked the strength to shoot arrows. On 24 November 757, Suiyang fell to the Yan army. Zhang Xun said before the fall, "We are out of strength, and can no longer defend the fortress. Although we have failed the emperor in life, we hope to keep killing enemies after death." Zhang Xun, Nan Jiyun, and Xu Yuan were all captured. According to an exchange in the ''
Zizhi Tongjian The ''Zizhi Tongjian'' (1084) is a chronicle published during the Northern Song dynasty (960–1127) that provides a record of Chinese history from 403 BC to 959 AD, covering 16 dynasties and spanning almost 1400 years. The main text is ...
'', Yin Ziqi asked Zhang Xun, "I heard that every time you fight, your eyes are ripped open, and your teeth are cracked. Why?" Zhang Xun answered, "I want to swallow rebel traitors, but I cannot hear them." Yin Ziqi then used a dagger to open Zhang Xun's mouth to examine his teeth, and to his surprise, all but three or four of Zhang Xun's teeth were indeed cracked. Zhang Xun finally said, "I die for my emperor, so I will die in peace." Unable to convince Zhang Xun to surrender, the Yan army attempted to convince Nan Jiyun to surrender, but he refused to speak. Zhang Xun told him, "Eighth brother Nan! All brave men face death. Do not give in to unrighteousness!" Nan Jiyun replied, "I had intended to accomplish great things (by surrendering and living on), but you know me so well. If you say so, how dare I not die?" He then refused to surrender. Yin Ziqi admired Zhang Xun's bravery and commanding abilities and tried unsuccessfully to persuade Zhang Xun, Nan Jiyun, and Xu Yuan to join the ranks of the Yan. Fearing further danger from his captives, Yin had all three men executed, along with 33 other loyal elite soldiers, including Lei Wanchun and Yao Kun. By the end of the siege, the Yan army had reportedly lost 120,000 men in more than 400 battles for Suiyang. Only three days after the city's fall, a Tang army sent as reinforcements appeared, but by then it was too late.


Aftermath

Zhang Xun was able to repel many overwhelming Yan attacks despite becoming more outnumbered with each battle. Because of Zhang Xun's determination, resource-laden southern China did not come under threat from the rebels for almost two years. With such a large Yan army held at bay, the Tang army was able to use the resources to gather more troops for combat. This gave the Tang army enough time to regroup and strike back at the Yan army. Before the Battles of Yongqiu and Suiyang, the Yan army intended to conquer the Tang dynasty. Their total army size across the country was well over 300,000 men, vastly outnumbering what the Tang army could have offered at the time. After these two battles, however, the tide had turned, and the Tang army held the upper hand in terms of both manpower and equipment. Although the Yan army emerged victorious at Yongqiu and Suiyang, it suffered irreparable losses. If the Yan army had conquered Suiyang even one year earlier, the Tang might have ended by 757. The Suiyang campaign marked the turning point of the rebellion.


Evaluation and legacy

After the war, the imperial government and literati increasingly portrayed Zhang Xun and Xu Yuan as icons of loyalty and patriotism. The plan by the Tang court to posthumously award Zhang Xun was initially met with controversy due to the mass cannibalism in the siege. Some court officials condemned Zhang's conduct, maintaining "that it would have been better for him to have evacuated Sui-yang than to have eaten the people entrusted to his care". However, seven young scholars spoke in his defence. Only the arguments of one of them – Li Han, who seems to have been a close friend of Zhang Xun – are still known,Li Han (李翰) in since parts of them were incorporated into the ''
New Book of Tang The ''New Book of Tang'', generally translated as the "New History of the Tang" or "New Tang History", is a work of official history covering the Tang dynasty in ten volumes and 225 chapters. The work was compiled by a team of scholars of the So ...
'' and the ''
Zizhi Tongjian The ''Zizhi Tongjian'' (1084) is a chronicle published during the Northern Song dynasty (960–1127) that provides a record of Chinese history from 403 BC to 959 AD, covering 16 dynasties and spanning almost 1400 years. The main text is ...
''. Li offered three arguments in defence of Zhang's acts: Firstly, that human flesh had only been eaten as "a desperate expedient, a last resort", when other Tang forces failed to come to the rescue. Secondly, that "his stubborn and prolonged defense had kept the rebels out of the Huai River valley and the Lower Yangtze region", preventing them from making further progress and thus greatly contributing to their ultimate downfall. He therefore stated that even if Zhang had intended "from the very start to engage in cannibalism..., his military accomplishment was so great that the merit and the fault would still have cancelled each other out". Finally, Li argued that Zhang had been loyal to the government up to the death and that praise for him would "encourage others to behave in the same exemplary fashion". The arguments in favour of the defenders prevailed and Zhang was added to the list of "loyal martyrs" who were rewarded posthumous offices by the emperor. Due to the decision that their merit in maintaining the Tang victory outweighed any concerns, shrines were constructed in honour of Zhang and Xu, first in Suiyang and later also at the
Lingyan Pavilion Lingyan Pavilion () was a small tower beside Sanqing Hall () in the southwest of Taiji Palace (), Chang'an, the capital of the Tang dynasty. Its location in modern China is roughly in the north of Xi'an, Shaanxi. The original 24 On 23 March 643, d ...
in
Chang'an Chang'an (; zh, t=長安, s=长安, p=Cháng'ān, first=t) is the traditional name of the city now named Xi'an and was the capital of several Chinese dynasties, ranging from 202 BCE to 907 CE. The site has been inhabited since Neolithic time ...
. There they were venerated alongside the most respected officials and generals in Tang history. Graff suggests that ultimately Zhang Xun was declared "a loyalist icon not in spite of his cannibalism but because of it". In a perilous situation, where people sometimes had to "choose between their loyalty to the dynasty on the one hand and the safety of themselves and their loved ones on the other, the court and its supporters could not afford to allow any doubt as to which considerations should be primary and which secondary". By demonstrating so clearly that "loyalty to the dynasty" was his utmost concern, his "transgressions... provided a particularly clear-cut object lesson in the proper prioritization of values". Tales of the heroism of the defenders were embellished both in the works of famous writers and poets during the Tang–Song period, such as
Gao Shi Gao Shi () was a Chinese military general, poet, and politician of the Tang dynasty, two of whose poems were collected in the popular anthology ''Three Hundred Tang Poems''. His courtesy name was Dáfū ().'' Kanjigen'' entry "Gao Shi" (Kōteki ...
,
Han Yu Han Yu (; 76825 December 824), courtesy name Tuizhi (), and commonly known by his posthumous name Han Wengong (韓文公), was an essayist, Confucian scholar, poet, and government official during the Tang dynasty who significantly influenced t ...
,
Liu Zongyuan Liu Zongyuan (; 77328 November 819),courtesy name Zihou (), was a Chinese philosopher, prose writer, poet, and politician who lived during the Tang dynasty. Liu was born in present-day Yongji, Shanxi. Along with Han Yu, he was a leader of th ...
,
Wang Anshi Wang Anshi (; ; December 8, 1021 – May 21, 1086), courtesy name Jiefu (), was a Chinese economist, philosopher, poet, and politician during the Song dynasty. He served as chancellor and attempted major and controversial socioeconomic reforms ...
,
Sima Guang Sima Guang (17 November 1019 – 11 October 1086), courtesy name Junshi, was a Chinese historian, politician, and writer. He was a high-ranking Song dynasty scholar-official who authored the ''Zizhi Tongjian'', a monumental work of history. B ...
,
Ouyang Xiu Ouyang Xiu (; 1007 – 1072 CE), courtesy name Yongshu, also known by his art names Zuiweng () and Liu Yi Jushi (), was a Chinese historian, calligrapher, epigrapher, essayist, poet, and politician of the Song dynasty. He was a renowned writer a ...
and
Huang Tingjian Huang Tingjian (; 1045, Jiangxi province, China–1105, Yizhou ow Yishan Guangxi) was a Chinese calligrapher, painter, and poet of the Song dynasty. He is predominantly known as a calligrapher, and is also admired for his painting and poetry. H ...
, and in official histories like the ''New Book of Tang''. A popular poem by the late Song politician
Wen Tianxiang Wen Tianxiang (; June 6, 1236 – January 9, 1283), noble title Duke of Xin (), was a Chinese statesman, poet and politician in the last years of the Song dynasty#Southern Song, 1127–1279, Southern Song dynasty. For his resistance to Kublai K ...
cited the stories of Zhang Xun and Xu Yuan as examples of loyalty and persistence to inspire resistance in the face of the
Mongol invasion The Mongol invasions and conquests took place during the 13th and 14th centuries, creating history's largest contiguous empire, the Mongol Empire (1206–1368), which by 1260 covered large parts of Eurasia. Historians regard the Mongol devastati ...
. The Tang, Song, and Ming dynasties all organized state ceremonies in honour of Zhang and Xu; in some regions, Zhang Xun was even revered and worshipped by believers of the
Chinese folk religion Chinese folk religion comprises a range of traditional religious practices of Han Chinese, including the Chinese diaspora. This includes the veneration of ''Shen (Chinese folk religion), shen'' ('spirits') and Chinese ancestor worship, ances ...
. Others like
Wang Fuzhi Wang Fuzhi (; 1619–1692), courtesy name Ernong (), pseudonym Chuanshan (), was a Chinese essayist, historian, and philosopher of the late Ming, early Qing dynasties. Life Born to a scholarly family in Hengyang in Hunan province in 1619, Wang ...
and
Yuan Mei Yuan Mei (; 1716–1797) was a Chinese poet of the Qing dynasty. He was often mentioned with Ji Yun as the "Nan Yuan Bei Ji" (). Biography Early life Yuan Mei was born in Qiantang (, in modern Hangzhou), Zhejiang province, to a cultured famil ...
, however, harshly criticized the defenders. Wang Fuzhi commented that killing people for food should not be accepted even in life-or-death situations.


See also

*
Cannibalism in Asia Acts of cannibalism in Asia have been reported from various parts of the continent, ranging from ancient history to the 21st century. Human cannibalism is particularly well documented for China and for islands that today belong to Indonesia. Th ...
*
List of incidents of cannibalism This is a list of incidents of cannibalism, or anthropophagy, the consumption of human flesh or internal organs by other human beings. Accounts of human cannibalism date back as far as prehistoric times, and some anthropologists suggest that c ...


Notes


References


Bibliography


Primary sources

* * *


Secondary sources

* * * * * * {{DEFAULTSORT:Suiyang 757 Battles involving the Tang dynasty An Lushan Rebellion Incidents of cannibalism 8th century in China Suiyang 757 Sieges involving China Ambushes in China Cannibalism in Asia Shangqiu Military history of Henan