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The siege of Aachen took place in 24 August 1614, when the Spanish
Army of Flanders The Army of Flanders (; ) was a field army of the Spanish Army based in the Spanish Netherlands between the 16th and 18th centuries. It was one of the longest-serving field armies of the early modern era, being founded in 1567 and disbanded in 170 ...
, led by
Ambrogio Spinola, 1st Marquis of the Balbases Ambrogio Spinola Doria, 1st Marquess of Los Balbases and 1st Duke of Sesto (1569 – 25 September 1630) was an Italian military leader and nobleman of the Republic of Genoa, who served as a Spanish general and won a number of important battles. ...
, marched from
Maastricht Maastricht ( , , ; ; ; ) is a city and a Municipalities of the Netherlands, municipality in the southeastern Netherlands. It is the capital city, capital and largest city of the province of Limburg (Netherlands), Limburg. Maastricht is loca ...
to
Germany Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It lies between the Baltic Sea and the North Sea to the north and the Alps to the south. Its sixteen States of Germany, constituent states have a total popu ...
to support
Wolfgang Wilhelm, Count Palatine of Neuburg Wolfgang Wilhelm von Pfalz-Neuburg (4 November 1578 in Neuburg an der Donau – 14 September 1653 in Düsseldorf) was a German Prince. He was Count Palatine of Neuburg and Duke of Jülich and Berg. Life Wolfgang Wilhelm's parents were ...
, during the
War of the Jülich Succession The War of the Jülich Succession, also known as the Jülich War or the Jülich-Cleves Succession Crises (German language, German: ''Jülich-Klevischer Erbfolgestreit''), was a war of succession in the United Duchies of Jülich-Cleves-Berg. The fi ...
.Van Nimwegen p. 203 Despite its status as a free imperial city, Aachen was under the protection of John Sigismund of Brandenburg, Neuburg's ally, and then rival, in the battle for the
United Duchies of Jülich-Cleves-Berg The United Duchies of Jülich-Cleves-Berg was a territory in the Holy Roman Empire between 1521 and 1614, formed from the personal union of the duchies of Jülich, Cleves and Berg. The name was resurrected after the Congress of Vienna for ...
.Lawrence p. 79 In 1611, the
Protestant Protestantism is a branch of Christianity that emphasizes Justification (theology), justification of sinners Sola fide, through faith alone, the teaching that Salvation in Christianity, salvation comes by unmerited Grace in Christianity, divin ...
population of Aachen had revolted against the Catholic city council and had seized power. When the
Holy Roman Emperor The Holy Roman Emperor, originally and officially the Emperor of the Romans (disambiguation), Emperor of the Romans (; ) during the Middle Ages, and also known as the Roman-German Emperor since the early modern period (; ), was the ruler and h ...
Rudolf II Rudolf II (18 July 1552 – 20 January 1612) was Holy Roman Emperor (1576–1612), King of Hungary and Croatia (as Rudolf I, 1572–1608), King of Bohemia (1575–1608/1611) and Archduke of Austria (1576–1608). He was a member of the H ...
, observing the
Peace of Augsburg The Peace of Augsburg (), also called the Augsburg Settlement, was a treaty between Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, and the Schmalkaldic League, signed on 25 September 1555 in the German city of Augsburg. It officially ended the religious struggl ...
, had ordered the previous state to be restored, the Protestants had allied themselves with the
Margraviate of Brandenburg The Margraviate of Brandenburg () was a major principality of the Holy Roman Empire from 1157 to 1806 that, having electoral status although being quite poor, grew rapidly in importance after inheriting the Duchy of Prussia in 1618 and then came ...
. The unexpected arrival of a Spanish army at the gates of the city, however, caused the Protestants to lose courage and surrender Aachen to Spinola. A Catholic garrison was installed and a process of re-Catholicization began.


Background

Aachen was a free imperial city of importance from the times of
Charlemagne Charlemagne ( ; 2 April 748 – 28 January 814) was List of Frankish kings, King of the Franks from 768, List of kings of the Lombards, King of the Lombards from 774, and Holy Roman Emperor, Emperor of what is now known as the Carolingian ...
to the 16th century. It was the place of coronation of the
King of the Germans This is a list of monarchs who ruled over East Francia, and the Kingdom of Germany (), from Treaty of Verdun, the division of the Francia, Frankish Empire in 843 and Dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire, the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire in ...
until Maximilian II was crowned in Frankfurt in 1562. Since then, Aachen went into a slow decline. A mainly Catholic city at the time of the
Peace of Augsburg The Peace of Augsburg (), also called the Augsburg Settlement, was a treaty between Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, and the Schmalkaldic League, signed on 25 September 1555 in the German city of Augsburg. It officially ended the religious struggl ...
, it became religiously divided in the 1560s through the immigration of
Protestant Protestantism is a branch of Christianity that emphasizes Justification (theology), justification of sinners Sola fide, through faith alone, the teaching that Salvation in Christianity, salvation comes by unmerited Grace in Christianity, divin ...
refugees from the Netherlands as a consequence of the Spanish persecution during the
Dutch revolt The Eighty Years' War or Dutch Revolt (; 1566/1568–1648) was an armed conflict in the Habsburg Netherlands between disparate groups of rebels and the Spanish government. The causes of the war included the Reformation, centralisation, exc ...
.Holborn, p. 288 By the 1570s Aachen's population numbered 12,000 Catholics and 8,000 Protestants.Whaley, p. 537 The city council and the Emperor tried to exclude the Protestants from political participation in 1581, but thanks to the economic influence of many of the Protestant citizens, Catholics were forced to allow them access to the city council. As jurisdiction over Aachen was claimed by the
Duke of Jülich Duke is a male title either of a monarch ruling over a duchy, or of a member of royalty, or nobility. As rulers, dukes are ranked below emperors, kings, grand princes, grand dukes, and above sovereign princes. As royalty or nobility, they are ...
and the
Bishop of Liege A bishop is an ordained member of the clergy who is entrusted with a position of Episcopal polity, authority and oversight in a religious institution. In Christianity, bishops are normally responsible for the governance and administration of di ...
, both of them Catholics, the Catholic population appealed to the first, who complained to Emperor Rudolf II, claiming that his ecclesiastic rights over Aachen had been violated. In 1593 the
Reichshofrat The Aulic Council (; ; literally "Court Council of the Empire", sometimes abbreviated in academic writing as "RHR") was one of the two supreme courts of the Holy Roman Empire, the other being the ''Reichskammergericht'' (Imperial Chamber Court). ...
declared that the city council could not change the religious status of Aachen, and therefore the Calvinists had to be expelled from the council. When they tried to resist, Rudolf outlawed the city and gave Archduke Albert, governor of the Spanish Netherlands, the task of enforcing his decision. The subsequent re-Catholicization of the city was conducted by the
Archbishop of Cologne The Archbishop of Cologne governs the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Cologne in western North Rhine-Westphalia. Historically, the archbishop was ''ex officio'' one of the prince-electors of the Holy Roman Empire and ruled the Electorate of Cologne ...
. In 1611, during the
War of the Jülich Succession The War of the Jülich Succession, also known as the Jülich War or the Jülich-Cleves Succession Crises (German language, German: ''Jülich-Klevischer Erbfolgestreit''), was a war of succession in the United Duchies of Jülich-Cleves-Berg. The fi ...
, the Elector of Brandenburg and the Duke of Palatinate-Neuburg, claimants of the Jülich heirdom in opposition to the Catholic
Leopold V, Archduke of Austria Leopold V, Archduke of Further Austria (9 October 1586 – 13 September 1632) was the son of Archduke Charles II of Inner Austria, and the younger brother of Emperor Ferdinand II, father of Ferdinand Charles, Archduke of Further Austria. ...
, organized Protestant religious services in the nearby villages of Stolberg and Weiden.Duerloo, p. 343 In response, the city council of Aachen imposed a
fine Fine may refer to: Characters * Fran Fine, the title character of ''The Nanny'' * Sylvia Fine (''The Nanny''), Fran's mother on ''The Nanny'' * Officer Fine, a character in ''Tales from the Crypt'', played by Vincent Spano Legal terms * Fine (p ...
on those inhabitants who attended these services. Five citizens were detained for ignoring the town's decree and banished as they refused to pay the fine. This caused a riot against the council on 5 July. The Catholic counsellors were expelled and many Catholic buildings were sacked. The rebels assaulted the church and the college of the
Jesuits The Society of Jesus (; abbreviation: S.J. or SJ), also known as the Jesuit Order or the Jesuits ( ; ), is a religious order (Catholic), religious order of clerics regular of pontifical right for men in the Catholic Church headquartered in Rom ...
, smashed the altars and images, and held a mock mass dressed in priestly garments.Janssen, p. 564 One priest was injured and eight others dragged to the city council. A new Protestant council was established and appealed for support to
John Sigismund, Elector of Brandenburg John Sigismund (; 8 November 1572 – 23 December 1619) was a Prince-elector of the Margraviate of Brandenburg from the House of Hohenzollern. He became the Duke of Prussia through his marriage to Duchess Anna, the eldest daughter of Duke Al ...
, the new Duke of Cleves-Mark.


Spanish intervention

Rudolf II ordered the princes of Brandenburg and Palatinate-Neuburg to restore the previous religious and political situation of Aachen under the menace of a ban. The Protestants, however, ignored the command and seriously wounded an Imperial commissary sent to implement the Emperor's edict.Janssen, p. 565 In May 1612, elections were held and Calvinists took control of the town council. In 1613, as disputes over the Jülich succession continued, one of the claimants,
Wolfgang Wilhelm, Count Palatine of Neuburg Wolfgang Wilhelm von Pfalz-Neuburg (4 November 1578 in Neuburg an der Donau – 14 September 1653 in Düsseldorf) was a German Prince. He was Count Palatine of Neuburg and Duke of Jülich and Berg. Life Wolfgang Wilhelm's parents were ...
, converted to
Catholicism The Catholic Church (), also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the List of Christian denominations by number of members, largest Christian church, with 1.27 to 1.41 billion baptized Catholics Catholic Church by country, worldwid ...
and gained the support of
Spain Spain, or the Kingdom of Spain, is a country in Southern Europe, Southern and Western Europe with territories in North Africa. Featuring the Punta de Tarifa, southernmost point of continental Europe, it is the largest country in Southern Eur ...
and of the Catholic League of Germany. On 20 February 1614, Emperor
Matthias Matthias is a name derived from the Greek Ματθαίος, in origin similar to Matthew. Notable people Notable people named Matthias include the following: Religion * Saint Matthias, chosen as an apostle in Acts 1:21–26 to replace Judas Isca ...
ordered the restoration of Catholic rule in Aachen, allowing the Spanish
Army of Flanders The Army of Flanders (; ) was a field army of the Spanish Army based in the Spanish Netherlands between the 16th and 18th centuries. It was one of the longest-serving field armies of the early modern era, being founded in 1567 and disbanded in 170 ...
under
Ambrogio Spinola Ambrogio Spinola Doria, 1st Marquess of Los Balbases and 1st Duke of Sesto (1569 – 25 September 1630) was an Italian military leader and nobleman of the Republic of Genoa, who served as a Spanish general and won a number of important battles. ...
to intervene. Fearing an attack, the town council requested help from the Elector of Brandenburg, who sent several hundred soldiers under general Georg von Pulitz to reinforce the local militia.Janssen, p. 566 The city gates were manned and partly walled-up. The Spanish preparations to intervene in the succession dispute alarmed the Dutch statholder
Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange Maurice of Orange (; 14 November 1567 – 23 April 1625) was ''stadtholder'' of all the provinces of the Dutch Republic except for Lordship of Frisia, Friesland from 1585 at the earliest until his death on 23 April 1625. Before he became P ...
, who supported John Sigismund of Brandenburg, and knew that the Spanish intervention would destabilize the course of succession. In the middle of June,
William Louis, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg William Louis of Nassau-Dillenburg (; ; 13 March 1560, Dillenburg, Hesse – 13 July 1620, Leeuwarden, Netherlands) was Count of Nassau-Dillenburg from 1606 to 1620, and stadtholder of Friesland, Groningen, and Drenthe. Life Will ...
, warned Prince Maurice that the Spaniards already had 9,800 men ready for field service, and that they would soon be joined by a further force of 13,200 men. With the imminent Spanish threat, Maurice strongly reinforced the garrison of
Jülich Jülich (; in old spellings also known as ''Guelich'' or ''Gülich'', , , Ripuarian: ''Jöllesch'') is a town in the district of Düren, in the federal state of North Rhine-Westphalia, in western Germany. As a border region between the competin ...
with seven infantry companies, and an additional force of 2,000 men, for a possible siege. The situation was tense for the two sides. Maurice, with additional troops from towns that were not under serious threat, expected to be able to raise an army of 20,000 men, composed of 136 infantry companies and 40 cavalry companies. Meanwhile, Ambrogio Spinola was ready to start the campaign. His first movement was upon Aachen: In August 1614, Spinola advanced to
Maastricht Maastricht ( , , ; ; ; ) is a city and a Municipalities of the Netherlands, municipality in the southeastern Netherlands. It is the capital city, capital and largest city of the province of Limburg (Netherlands), Limburg. Maastricht is loca ...
and its surroundings and established his camp with an army of 18,000 infantry, 2,500 cavalry, and 11 artillery pieces. From Maastricht, Spinola's army entered the
Rhineland The Rhineland ( ; ; ; ) is a loosely defined area of Western Germany along the Rhine, chiefly Middle Rhine, its middle section. It is the main industrial heartland of Germany because of its many factories, and it has historic ties to the Holy ...
accompanied by
Guido Bentivoglio Guido Bentivoglio d'Aragona (4 October 15797 September 1644) was an Italian cardinal, statesman and historian. Early years A member of the Ferrara branch of the influential Bentivoglio family of Bologna, he was the younger son of marchese Co ...
, the papal nuncio at
Brussels Brussels, officially the Brussels-Capital Region, (All text and all but one graphic show the English name as Brussels-Capital Region.) is a Communities, regions and language areas of Belgium#Regions, region of Belgium comprising #Municipalit ...
, and two Imperial commissaries. Luis de Velasco, general of the cavalry, opened the way with 600 cavalry, followed by four battalions of foot: one of Spaniards, one of Germans and Burgundians, and two of Walloons. 600 other horses closed the march. To prevent Aachen from being relieved by the Dutch from Jülich, Spinola detached what remained of his cavalry to block the road between the two cities.Bentivoglio, p. 179 Two hours after its departure from Maastricht, the Spanish army appeared before Aachen. The city lacked modern fortifications and was surrounded by a single medieval wall. The Spanish troops took the hills which commanded the city, within musket-shot of the walls, and erected a battery to threaten the inhabitants and the 600-man Brandenburgian garrison. After several days of negotiations, and with little hope of reinforcements, the defenders surrendered the city to the Spanish army, to the great regret of Maurice, who could not arrive in time for relief.Olaf Van Nimwegen p. 204


Aftermath

The 600 Brandenburg soldiers were allowed to leave Aachen with their flags and were replaced by 1,200 Catholic Germans under the Count of Emden. Although the soldiers of the Spanish army, after several years of inactivity following the beginning of the
Twelve Years' Truce The Twelve Years' Truce was a ceasefire during the Eighty Years' War between Habsburg Spain, Spain and the Dutch Republic, agreed in Antwerp on 9 April 1609 and ended on 9 April 1621. While European powers like Kingdom of France, France began tre ...
(in 1609) with the Dutch Republic, expected to sack the city, Spinola forbade any looting and Spanish troops did not enter the town. The Catholic city council was restored, and, on 10 September, it issued an edict which gave the Protestant preachers three days to abandon the town, and six weeks for the non-citizen
Anabaptists Anabaptism (from Neo-Latin , from the Greek : 're-' and 'baptism'; , earlier also )Since the middle of the 20th century, the German-speaking world no longer uses the term (translation: "Re-baptizers"), considering it biased. The term (tra ...
and other foreigners to do the same.Janssen, p. 567 From then on, only Catholic schools and schoolmasters were tolerated, books labeled as heretics were banned, meat dishes were not allowed to be eaten in inns on the fast days, and a fitting homage was to be paid to the Holy Sacrament and relics when public processions were held. The people who took part in the 1611 rebellion were punished: in 1616 two ringleaders were executed, more than one hundred citizens who participated in the disturbances were exiled, and others were forced to pay a fine. After the capture of Aachen, Spinola took several towns and castles in the lands disputed by the claimants to the Jülich heritage, including
Neuss Neuss (; written ''Neuß'' until 1968; ; ) is a city in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. It is on the west bank of the Rhine opposite Düsseldorf. Neuss is the largest city within the Rhein-Kreis Neuss district. It is primarily known for its ...
,
Mülheim Mülheim, officially Mülheim an der Ruhr (, ; ; ) and also described as ''"City on the River"'', is a city in North Rhine-Westphalia in western Germany. It is located in the Ruhr Area between Duisburg, Essen, Oberhausen and Ratingen. It is ho ...
, and the important German fortress-city of
Wesel Wesel () is a city in North Rhine-Westphalia, in western Germany. It is the capital of the Wesel (district), Wesel district. Geography Wesel is situated at the confluence of the Lippe River and the Rhine. Division of the city Suburbs of Wesel i ...
, whish was garrisoned by troops of
Brandenburg Brandenburg, officially the State of Brandenburg, is a States of Germany, state in northeastern Germany. Brandenburg borders Poland and the states of Berlin, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Lower Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, and Saxony. It is the List of Ger ...
,''Wesel was captured by Spinola's army on 5 September.'' Lawrence p. 79 As a consequence, the Protestant position in the Rhineland was weakened despite Spinola deciding not to lay siege to
Jülich Jülich (; in old spellings also known as ''Guelich'' or ''Gülich'', , , Ripuarian: ''Jöllesch'') is a town in the district of Düren, in the federal state of North Rhine-Westphalia, in western Germany. As a border region between the competin ...
due to the city's strong defense and large garrison. Maurice of Nassau then marched on Rees with an estimated force of 18,000 men. Spinola subsequently established a position near
Xanten Xanten (, Low Rhenish: ''Santen'') is a town in the state of North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. It is located in the district of Wesel. Xanten is known for the Archaeological Park, one of the largest archaeological open air museums in the ...
, whereupon Spinola and Maurice started negotiations about a neutrality pact, leading to the
Treaty of Xanten The Treaty of Xanten () was signed in the Lower Rhenish town of Xanten on 12 November 1614 between Wolfgang Wilhelm, Count Palatine of Neuburg and John Sigismund, Elector of Brandenburg, with representatives from Kingdom of England, England and Kin ...
,Hayden p. 22 which ended the
War of the Jülich Succession The War of the Jülich Succession, also known as the Jülich War or the Jülich-Cleves Succession Crises (German language, German: ''Jülich-Klevischer Erbfolgestreit''), was a war of succession in the United Duchies of Jülich-Cleves-Berg. The fi ...
and all hostilities between
Wolfgang Wilhelm, Count Palatine of Neuburg Wolfgang Wilhelm von Pfalz-Neuburg (4 November 1578 in Neuburg an der Donau – 14 September 1653 in Düsseldorf) was a German Prince. He was Count Palatine of Neuburg and Duke of Jülich and Berg. Life Wolfgang Wilhelm's parents were ...
, and
John Sigismund, Elector of Brandenburg John Sigismund (; 8 November 1572 – 23 December 1619) was a Prince-elector of the Margraviate of Brandenburg from the House of Hohenzollern. He became the Duke of Prussia through his marriage to Duchess Anna, the eldest daughter of Duke Al ...
, until 1621. The territories of Jülich-Berg and
Ravenstein Ravenstein may refer to: Places * Ravenstein, Germany in the district Neckar-Odenwald, Baden-Württemberg * Ravenstein, Netherlands in Oss, North Brabant * Ravenstein railway station Films Ravenstein a 2020 British Horror film People with the ...
went to Wolfgang Wilhelm of Neuburg, while
Cleves-Mark The Duchy of Cleves (; ) was a Imperial State, state of the Holy Roman Empire which emerged from the medieval . It was situated in the northern Rhineland on both sides of the Lower Rhine, around its capital Cleves and the towns of Wesel, Kalkar, ...
and Ravensberg went to John Sigismund. Spinola refused to give up the key fortress of Wesel, and further negotiations were necessary, but in the end a shaky peace was maintained.


See also

* League of Evangelical Union *
Thirty Years' War The Thirty Years' War, fought primarily in Central Europe between 1618 and 1648, was one of the most destructive conflicts in History of Europe, European history. An estimated 4.5 to 8 million soldiers and civilians died from battle, famine ...
* Catholic League *
Army of Flanders The Army of Flanders (; ) was a field army of the Spanish Army based in the Spanish Netherlands between the 16th and 18th centuries. It was one of the longest-serving field armies of the early modern era, being founded in 1567 and disbanded in 170 ...
* Brandenburg-Prussia *
United Duchies of Jülich-Cleves-Berg The United Duchies of Jülich-Cleves-Berg was a territory in the Holy Roman Empire between 1521 and 1614, formed from the personal union of the duchies of Jülich, Cleves and Berg. The name was resurrected after the Congress of Vienna for ...


Notes


References

* * * * * * * * {{Use dmy dates, date=June 2017
Aachen Aachen is the List of cities in North Rhine-Westphalia by population, 13th-largest city in North Rhine-Westphalia and the List of cities in Germany by population, 27th-largest city of Germany, with around 261,000 inhabitants. Aachen is locat ...
Aachen Aachen is the List of cities in North Rhine-Westphalia by population, 13th-largest city in North Rhine-Westphalia and the List of cities in Germany by population, 27th-largest city of Germany, with around 261,000 inhabitants. Aachen is locat ...
Military history of North Rhine-Westphalia 1614 in Europe Conflicts in 1614 History of Aachen 1614 in the Holy Roman Empire Eighty Years' War (1566–1609) Battles involving Brandenburg