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''Shussan Shaka'' ( Japanese: 出山釈迦 ''shussan shaka''; Chinese: 出山釋迦 ''chūshān shìjiā''; English: Śākyamuni Descending from the Mountain) is a subject in East Asian
Buddhist art Buddhist art is visual art produced in the context of Buddhism. It includes Buddha in art, depictions of Gautama Buddha and other Buddhas and bodhisattvas in art, Buddhas and bodhisattvas, notable Buddhist figures both historical and mythical, ...
and poetry, in which Śākyamuni Buddha returns from six years of asceticism in the mountains, having realized that ascetic practice is not the path to
enlightenment Enlightenment or enlighten may refer to: Age of Enlightenment * Age of Enlightenment, period in Western intellectual history from the late 17th to late 18th century, centered in France but also encompassing (alphabetically by country or culture): ...
. The story of ''Shussan Shaka'' is an important subject in painting from both China and Japan, but rarely or never found in
Buddhist art Buddhist art is visual art produced in the context of Buddhism. It includes Buddha in art, depictions of Gautama Buddha and other Buddhas and bodhisattvas in art, Buddhas and bodhisattvas, notable Buddhist figures both historical and mythical, ...
outside of
East Asia East Asia is a geocultural region of Asia. It includes China, Japan, Mongolia, North Korea, South Korea, and Taiwan, plus two special administrative regions of China, Hong Kong and Macau. The economies of Economy of China, China, Economy of Ja ...
, where a mountain retreat is not part of the story of this part of the Buddha's life. According to the story, Śākyamuni, after leaving his palace, retreated into the mountains to seek enlightenment. Accompanied by five other ascetics, he meditated and fasted to a severe extent, his body becoming thin and emaciated. After six years, Sujata, a young girl, gave Śākyamuni a quantity of milk rice, which he ate. Once he made this decision to end his fast, the five people practicing asceticism with him were disappointed and left him. So, a solitary Śākyamuni descended the mountain, left the life of extreme austerity behind him, and traveled instead to Gaya, the city that would become known as the famous site of his enlightenment under the bodhi tree. As a subject in art, ''Shussan Shaka'' is distinctive in its emphasis on the humanity of the historical Buddha, who in this and some other East Asian subjects is often given a beard, and a realistic, rather thin and dishevelled appearance, in contrast to traditional depictions of the
Buddha in art Much Buddhist art uses depictions of the historical Buddha, Gautama Buddha, which are known as () in Sanskrit and Pali. These may be statues or other images such as paintings. The main figure in an image may be someone else who has obtained B ...
. Key interpretive debates about paintings on this theme pivot on the question of whether the artist portrays Śākyamuni as enlightened or not.


Origins


Emergence in China

Since different Buddhist traditions have different beliefs about Śākyamuni's journey to enlightenment, there is no universal version of the biography of the historical Buddha. The story of ''Shussan Shaka'' is not present in traditional Mahayana Buddhist texts or artwork, indicating that this part of Śākyamuni's biography was a
Chan Buddhist Chan (; of ), from Sanskrit ''dhyāna in Buddhism, dhyāna'' (meaning "meditation" or "meditative state"), is a Chinese school of Mahayana, Mahāyāna Buddhism. It developed in China from the 6th century CE onwards, becoming especially popula ...
innovation of the tenth century. While reference to Śākyamuni's six years of asceticism is present in the '' Buddhacarita,'' no mountain locale is mentioned in that text, and indeed the traditional locations for Śākyamuni's life after the Great Departure are all broadly in the
Indo-Gangetic plain The Indo-Gangetic Plain, also known as the Northern Plain or North Indian River Plain, is a fertile plain spanning across the northern and north-eastern part of the Indian subcontinent. It encompasses North India, northern and East India, easte ...
, although the Vulture Peak in the Rajgir Hills in
Bihar Bihar ( ) is a states and union territories of India, state in Eastern India. It is the list of states and union territories of India by population, second largest state by population, the List of states and union territories of India by are ...
was a favourite place in his later life. The mountain setting was likely of Chinese origin because in
Chinese Buddhism Chinese Buddhism or Han Buddhism ( zh, s=汉传佛教, t=漢傳佛教, first=t, poj=Hàn-thoân Hu̍t-kàu, j=Hon3 Cyun4 Fat6 Gaau3, p=Hànchuán Fójiào) is a Chinese form of Mahayana Buddhism. The Chinese Buddhist canonJiang Wu, "The Chin ...
,
Daoism Taoism or Daoism (, ) is a diverse philosophical and religious tradition indigenous to China, emphasizing harmony with the Tao ( zh, p=dào, w=tao4). With a range of meaning in Chinese philosophy, translations of Tao include 'way', 'road', ...
, and
Confucianism Confucianism, also known as Ruism or Ru classicism, is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China, and is variously described as a tradition, philosophy, Religious Confucianism, religion, theory of government, or way of li ...
alike, mountains are believed to be holy places, and Daoist sages in particular often retreated to mountains for meditation. ''Shussan Shaka'' was popularized as a subject in painting in the thirteenth century during the Chinese
Song Dynasty The Song dynasty ( ) was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 960 to 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song, who usurped the throne of the Later Zhou dynasty and went on to conquer the rest of the Fiv ...
(960–1279), the period during which Chan reached its height in China. It became a particularly prevalent feature of paintings produced in the Chan temples of
Zhejiang Province ) , translit_lang1_type2 = , translit_lang1_info2 = ( Hangzhounese) ( Ningbonese) (Wenzhounese) , image_skyline = 玉甑峰全貌 - panoramio.jpg , image_caption = View of the Yandang Mountains , image_map = Zhejiang i ...
. The artist credited with initiating this motific tradition is the Northern Song literatus Li Gonglin (1049–1106). Though not extant, Li Gonglin's ''Shussan Shaka'' is referenced in inscriptions on other ''Shussan Shaka'' paintings, which have led scholars to this conclusion. Li's painting style involved fine lines and precise brushwork. In general, Chinese paintings of ''Shussan Shaka'' followed one of two styles: the first was the traditional Chinese style that featured color, thin outlines, and detailed depictions of figure and landscape, while the second was the characteristically Zen style of monochrome painting, thicker lines with a 'spontaneous' quality, and fewer landscape elements. The former was the earlier style, common in the Song Dynasty, while into the
Yuan Dynasty The Yuan dynasty ( ; zh, c=元朝, p=Yuáncháo), officially the Great Yuan (; Mongolian language, Mongolian: , , literally 'Great Yuan State'), was a Mongol-led imperial dynasty of China and a successor state to the Mongol Empire after Div ...
(1271–1368) it was the latter style that prevailed.


Transmission to Japan

Chan Buddhism was transmitted from China to Japan (where it is known as Zen) during the thirteenth century, along with the unique styles and motifs of the Chan painting tradition. For example, in the fourteenth century, the famous ''Shussan Shaka'' by Chinese painter
Liang Kai Liang Kai (; ''c''. 1140 - ''c''. 1210) was a Chinese painter of the Southern Song Dynasty. He was also known as Madman Liang because of his very informal pictures. He was born in Shandong and worked in Lin An (later Hangzhou). He is known to have ...
(ca. 1140-ca. 1210) was transported by Zen monks to Japan, where it inspired later Japanese paintings. Hence, early Japanese renditions of ''Shussan Shaka'' were based closely on Chinese models. Since Japanese priests were often the ones transporting paintings back to their home country, Chinese ''Shussan Shaka'' paintings often ended up in Japanese monasteries, and subsequent copies or imitations were created in monastery ateliers. In Japan, ''Shussan Shaka'' became particularly associated with the
Rinzai The Rinzai school (, zh, t=臨濟宗, s=临济宗, p=Línjì zōng), named after Linji Yixuan (Romaji: Rinzai Gigen, died 866 CE) is one of three sects of Zen in Japanese Buddhism, along with Sōtō and Ōbaku. The Chinese Linji school of ...
sect of Zen Buddhism and saw more prolonged popularity as a painting subject than in China, even into the
Edo Period The , also known as the , is the period between 1600 or 1603 and 1868 in the history of Japan, when the country was under the rule of the Tokugawa shogunate and some 300 regional ''daimyo'', or feudal lords. Emerging from the chaos of the Sengok ...
. In Japan, unlike in China, this Zen painting motif was on rare occasions translated to other forms of art, such as print illustration and sculpture.


Significance


Role in Early Chan/Zen

Though part of a broader tradition in Buddhist art and literature across Asia of depicting Śākyamuni during his years of asceticism, the story of ''Shussan Shaka'' in particular is unique to Zen. Typically, Zen spurned iconographic depictions of Buddhist deities as seen in the art of other sects. However, early Zen placed great emphasis on the centrality of Śākyamuni Buddha, whose role had become downplayed in recent Mahayana Buddhism. This emphasis was tied to the task of establishing an authoritative Zen patriarchal lineage traceable all the way back to the historical Buddha. Hence, according to Helmut Brinker and Hiroshi Kanazawa, the chief function of the motif of ''Shussan Shaka'' is to demonstrate "Śākyamuni's role as earthly religion founder." For this reason, portrayals of Śākyamuni descending the mountain after asceticism generally call viewers' attention to the human frailty of this important figure, grounding him in the earthly as opposed to deifying him. Śākyamuni appears starved and tired, his body is gaunt and bony, and his face may bear a dismayed expression. He is also commonly depicted as a monk. In addition to its relevance to lineage claims, ''Shussan Shaka'' also reflects important beliefs and practices of the Zen religious tradition. For instance, Śākyamuni's weariness as he walks down from the mountain suggests that enlightenment does not come easily. The solitariness of Śākyamuni's descent reflects Zen teaching about the importance of individual spirituality and solitary meditation. At the same time, his return to society after retreating to the mountains may also suggest that self-realization is fostered by living in community with others. That Śākyamuni's hands are always concealed by the folds of his robe rather than forming a
mudra A mudra (; , , "seal", "mark", or "gesture"; ) is a symbolic or ritual gesture or pose in Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism. While some mudras involve the entire body, most are performed with the hands and fingers. As well as being spiritual ges ...
resonates with the Zen Buddhist virtue of wordlessness. Finally, the narrative of the story itself in conjunction with artists' emphasis on earthliness suggests, in accordance with Zen teaching, that enlightenment is not found by completely cutting off oneself from the world. Historically, paintings on this motif had a relatively small audience, circulating among the overlapping networks of literati elites and Chan monks. In ritual use, ''Shussan Shaka'' paintings are hung on the walls of Rinzai Zen temples during the holiday celebrating the enlightenment of Śākyamuni Buddha. Seven days of meditation begin on the eighth day of the twelfth month, at the conclusion of which an image of ''Shussan Shaka'' is displayed and the mantra of Great Compassion said before it. This practice suggests that Śākyamuni's years of asceticism and self-denial in the mountains are indeed tied to his enlightenment in the religious understanding of these Zen practitioners.


Interpretive Debates

In interpreting Chinese and Japanese paintings of ''Shussan Shaka'', a key question for scholars is whether the Śākyamuni depicted is the already enlightened Buddha or simply a man disillusioned with austerities but yet to become the "enlightened one." Among scholars, two opposing schools of thought persist on this issue. However, Zen adherents tend to favor the former view: that Śākyamuni attained enlightenment during his time in the mountains. This would suggest that Śākyamuni is portrayed as a
bodhisattva In Buddhism, a bodhisattva is a person who has attained, or is striving towards, '' bodhi'' ('awakening', 'enlightenment') or Buddhahood. Often, the term specifically refers to a person who forgoes or delays personal nirvana or ''bodhi'' in ...
, forestalling nirvana and descending from the mountain to assist others on the path to enlightenment. In light of this reading, Śākyamuni's subsequent meditation and what is conventionally understood as his enlightenment under the bodhi tree at Gaya then also poses an interpretive challenge to scholars. Although ''Shussan Shaka'' paintings indeed present viewers with the emaciated frame of a distinctly human Śākyamuni, the question of enlightenment is complicated by the presence in some paintings of symbols and iconography indicating holiness. Some artists paint Śākyamuni with a halo, an uṣṇīṣa, or an
urna In Buddhist art and culture, the Urna (ūrṇā, ūrṇākeśa or ūrṇākośa (Pāli uṇṇa), and known as in Chinese) is a spiral or circular dot placed on the forehead of Buddhist images as an auspicious mark. As set out in the '' Lakk ...
, each of which may signify enlightenment. In Japanese ''Shussan Shaka'' paintings, the baldness on top of Śākyamuni's head can also represent an uṣṇīṣa. Most Chinese ''Shussan Shaka'' paintings do not feature a halo, which scholars therefore understand as primarily a Japanese innovation. Apart from the use of religious symbols, poetic inscriptions also animate discussions on the enlightened status of Śākyamuni in a given painting. For instance, according to Helmut Brinker, the following colophon by the Zen master
Zhongfeng Mingben Zhongfeng Mingben (; ), 1263–1323 was a Chan Buddhist master who lived at the beginning of Yuan China. He adhered to the rigorous style of the Linji school and influenced Zen through several Japanese teachers who studied under him. Biograph ...
(1263–1323) suggests an interpretation of ''Shussan Shaka'' as an enlightened Buddha returning to the world to spread his wordless teaching: While some Zen masters' inscriptions situate them in the same camp as Mingben, Brinker suggests that still others favor the alternative reading of ''Shussan Shaka'' as a portrait of a man still seeking self-realization, or at least to cast doubt on the completeness of his enlightenment. One example is the following colophon by Songyuan Chongyo (1132–1202):


In Chinese Painting


Liang Kai's ''Shussan Shaka''

Liang Kai's ''Śākyamuni Descending the Mountain After Asceticism'', from the first half of the 13th century and now in the
Tokyo National Museum The or TNM is an art museum in Ueno Park in the Taitō wards of Tokyo, ward of Tokyo, Japan. It is one of the four museums operated by the , is considered the oldest national museum and the largest art museum in Japan. The museum collects, prese ...
, is one of the oldest extant ''Shussan Shaka'' paintings, and the most famous. Produced under the patronage of Emperor Ningzong or Emperor Lizong of the
Southern Song dynasty The Song dynasty ( ) was an imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 960 to 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song, who usurped the throne of the Later Zhou dynasty and went on to conquer the rest of the Ten Kingdoms, endin ...
, it is a classic example of a ''Shussan Shaka'' in the Chinese orthodox style. There is no inscription on this painting other than the artist's signature, which identifies him as "Painter-in-Attendance" at the Imperial Academy. Liang Kai was not a Zen monk painter, but after he abandoned his position at the Imperial Academy and turned to a lifestyle of heavy drinking, his portraits came to suggest influences of the Chan painting tradition. Since his ''Shussan Shaka'' pre-dates this move, however, it bears the mark of his earlier work: a carefully planned and executed "academic" style. According to the analysis of Hiroshi Kanazawa, Liang Kai's ''Shakyamuni Descending the Mountain After Asceticism'' presents the viewer with an as yet unenlightened Śākyamuni.


The Cleveland ''Shussan Shaka''

The painting of ''Shussan Shaka'' at the
Cleveland Museum of Art The Cleveland Museum of Art (CMA) is an art museum in Cleveland, Ohio, United States. Located in the Wade Park District of University Circle, the museum is internationally renowned for its substantial holdings of Asian art, Asian and Art of anc ...
is the oldest extant ink monochrome rendition of this theme. Although its artist is unknown, the work is based on the style of the painter Li Que. A member of the Southern Song literati who interacted closely with Chan priests, Li Que had in turn studied Liang Kai's later work, and was known for his spontaneous painting style. Although depicting the same subject, the Cleveland ''Shussan Shaka'' differs radically in style from Liang Kai's version. In contrast to Liang Kai's ''Shussan Shaka'', the Cleveland version includes only the ground and no other landscape elements. There is also much sparser detail on Śākyamuni's face and body. The artist has employed mostly light, washy ink tonalities with some dark details for an effect known as "apparition painting." The Cleveland ''Shussan Shaka'' bears an inscription attributed to the Zen priest Chijue Daochong, (1170–1251), which reads: In Brinker's view, Chijue Daocheng's poem exhibits an interpretation of this image as a portrait of the Buddha returning to society having already attained enlightenment, or "revelation," in the mountains. However, Carla M. Zainie notes that Chijue Daochong's tone of questioning leaves this point open to debate.


The Freer ''Shussan Shaka''

Scholars date the Chinese ''Shussan Shaka'' painting at the
Freer Gallery of Art The Freer Gallery of Art is an art museum of the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C. focusing on Asian art. The Freer and the Arthur M. Sackler Gallery together form the National Museum of Asian Art in the United States. The Freer and ...
between 1239 and 1260, most likely close to 1250. This painting of ''Śākyamuni Emerging from the Mountains'' has been dubiously attributed to Hu Zhifu, a man about whom little historical information is available. This monochrome ''Shussan Shaka'' is characteristic of Chan painting style in the late-Southern Song and Yuan Dynasties. While the work overall appears very carefully composed and executed, the fine detail of Sakyamuni's face and body is juxtaposed with the less meticulous character of his robes. The painter of the Freer ''Shussan Shaka'' went yet further than the painter of the Cleveland ''Shussan Shaka'' by eschewing background and landscape elements altogether. The painting bears an inscription by Xiyan Liaohui (1198–1262), a Chan abbot originally from Sichuan. Xiyan Liaohui's inscription, brushed in the "running script" style and emulating the hand of Wuzhun Shifan, reads: Helmut Brinker characterizes the tone of this colophon as "desperate" and "despairing," belying "frustration" and "discontent," presenting to the reader a Śākyamuni who has not yet reached his goal.


In Japanese Painting


The Seattle ''Shussan Shaka''

This anonymous work housed at the Seattle Art Museum is the earliest known Japanese ''Shussan Shaka'' painting in existence today. It is a 13th century Japanese painting based on a 12th century Chinese prototype. In turn, this important painting was used as a model for subsequent versions in Japan. A seal on the Seattle ''Shussan Shaka'', along with its style and materials, associates it with the painting workshops of Kozanji, a monastery in
Kyoto Kyoto ( or ; Japanese language, Japanese: , ''Kyōto'' ), officially , is the capital city of Kyoto Prefecture in the Kansai region of Japan's largest and most populous island of Honshu. , the city had a population of 1.46 million, making it t ...
. This ''Shussan Shaka'' has the simple, abbreviated quality of a sketch. Like the Cleveland ''Shussan Shaka'', the only landscape element depicted on this hanging scroll is the ground on which Śākyamuni walks.


The Choraku-ji ''Shussan Shaka''

Although the artist of the Choraku-ji ''Shussan Shaka'' is unknown, the style of the painting leads scholars to infer that the creator of this work was a Zen priest rather than a trained painter. While Hiroshi Kanazawa posits that this portrait of ''Shussan Shaka'' is modeled after Liang Kai's famous rendition, Carla M. Zainie suggests it is evidently inspired by the Cleveland ''Shussan Shaka'', to which it also bears stylistic similarities. For instance, the monochrome Choraku-ji painting is characterized by variations in ink tonality and dynamically modulated brushstrokes like the Cleveland version. The inscriber of this work was also a Zen priest, identified as Dongming Huizhi ( Japanese: Tōmyō E'nichi), who lived from 1272–1340. In 1309, this priest of Chinese origin relocated to Japan, where he went on to establish a monastery in
Kamakura , officially , is a city of Kanagawa Prefecture in Japan. It is located in the Kanto region on the island of Honshu. The city has an estimated population of 172,929 (1 September 2020) and a population density of 4,359 people per km2 over the tota ...
. His inscription reads:
''He enters the mountains and returns from the mountains. In the East it flows rapidly, in the West it disappears. He has the bearing of a Phoenix and the manner of a Dragon. He is draped in silk, but emaciated to the bone. This is what he achieved in six years of asceticism: He became utterly confused.''
According to Helmut Brinker, Huizhi's emphasis on Śākyamuni's state of confusion suggests that the man in the painting has not yet achieved self-realization. Yet, Carla M. Zainie suggests that Huizhi's colophon remains open to interpretation due to the fact that "confused" could alternatively be taken to signify a kind of spiritual revelation.


Mori Sosen's ''Shussan Shaka''

The motif of ''Shussan Shaka'' saw renewed popularity in art and worship during the Edo Period (1603–1868), when Zen painting came to exert its influence on broader Japanese art and culture. Hence, Mori Sosen's ''Shaka Descending from the Mountains'' at the
Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art The Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art is an art gallery, art museum in Kansas City, Missouri, Kansas City, Missouri, known for its encyclopedic collection of art from nearly every continent and culture, and especially for its extensive collection of A ...
constitutes not only an example of a much later (ca. 1800) ''Shussan Shaka'' painting, but also a significant divergence in composition and style from conventional representations of this motif. It may be inspired by an earlier ''Shussan Shaka'' from the
Kano School Kano may refer to: Places *Kano State, a state in Northern Nigeria *Kano (city), a city in Nigeria, and the capital of Kano State ** Kingdom of Kano, a Hausa kingdom between the 10th and 14th centuries ** Sultanate of Kano, a Hausa kingdom betwee ...
. The artist Mori Sosen was not a Zen monk but rather a professional "town painter" supported by patronage. He is most well known for his realistic paintings of monkeys, which artistic background Patricia J. Graham suggests allowed him to bring an element of playfulness to the religious subject matter of ''Shussan Shaka''. His portrayal of Śākyamuni in a humble and somewhat whimsical manner suggest the influence of the iconoclastic strain of Zen art. Like its predecessors, Mori Sosen's ''Shussan Shaka'' stresses the humanity and ordinariness of the historical Buddha. In her analysis, Graham suggests that this resonates with the egalitarian quality of Zen beliefs about universal
buddha-nature In Buddhist philosophy and soteriology, Buddha-nature ( Chinese: , Japanese: , , Sanskrit: ) is the innate potential for all sentient beings to become a Buddha or the fact that all sentient beings already have a pure Buddha-essence within ...
and the accessibility of enlightenment.


References


Bibliography

* Brinker, Helmut. "Shussan Shaka in Sung and Yüan Painting." ''Arts Orientalis'' 9 (1973): 21–40. * Brinker, Helmut. "Zen Masters in Words and Images." ''Art of Japan: Paintings, Prints and Screens: Selected articles from'' Orientations ''1984–2002'', 195–204. Hong Kong: Orientations Magazine, Ltd., 2002. * Brinker, Helmut and Hiroshi Kanazawa. "Themes and Genres of Zen Painting: The Historical Buddha Sakyamuni." ''Zen:'' ''Masters of Meditation in Images and Writings'', trans. Andreas Lesinger, 131–135. Zurich: Artibus Asiae, 1997. * Cummings, Mary. "Austerities." ''The Lives of the Buddha in the Art and Literature of Asia''., 153–161. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, 1982. * Graham, Patricia J. "Professional Icon-Makers." ''Faith and Power in Japanese Buddhist Art, 1600–2005'', 127–249. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2007. * Kanazawa, Hiroshi. "Shaka Descending the Mountain." ''Japanese Ink Painting: Early Zen Masterpieces'', trans. Barbara Ford, 84–87. Tokyo: Kodansha International Ltd., 1979. * Kuwayama, George. "The Buddha Image in China." ''Light of Asia: Buddha Sakyamuni in Asian Art'', ed. Pratapaditya Pal, 165–174. Los Angeles: Los Angeles County Museum of Art, 1984. * Pal, Pratapaditya. "The Legendary Life of Buddha Sakyamuni." ''Light of Asia: Buddha Sakyamuni in Asian Art'', ed. Pratapaditya Pal, 37–128, but mainly 96-100. Los Angeles: Los Angeles County Museum of Art, 1984. * Poster, Amy G. "The Buddha Image in Japan." ''Light of Asia: Buddha Sakyamuni in Asian Art'', ed. Pratapaditya Pal, 183–250. Los Angeles: Los Angeles County Museum of Art, 1984. * Zainie, Carla M. "Sources for Some Early Japanese Ink Paintings." ''The Bulletin of the Cleveland Museum of Art'' 65, no. 7 (Sep., 1978): 232–246. {{authority control Zen art and culture Cultural depictions of Gautama Buddha Buddhist iconography