Shakespearean English

Early Modern English (sometimes abbreviated EModEFor example, or EMnE) or Early New English (ENE) is the stage of the English language from the beginning of the Tudor period to the English Interregnum and Restoration, or from the transition from Middle English, in the late 15th century, to the transition to Modern English, in the mid-to-late 17th century.

Before and after the accession of James I to the English throne in 1603, the emerging English standard began to influence the spoken and written Middle Scots of Scotland.

The grammatical and orthographical conventions of literary English in the late 16th century and the 17th century are still very influential on modern Standard English. Most modern readers of English can understand texts written in the late phase of Early Modern English, such as the '' King James Bible'' and the works of William Shakespeare, and they have greatly influenced Modern English.

Texts from the earlier phase of Early Modern English, such as the late-15th-century '' Le Morte d'Arthur'' (1485) and the mid-16th-century '' Gorboduc'' (1561), may present more difficulties but are still closer to Modern English grammar, lexicon and phonology than are 14th-century Middle English texts, such as the works of Geoffrey Chaucer.

History

English Renaissance

Transition from Middle English

The change from Middle English to Early Modern English affected much more than just vocabulary and pronunciation.

Middle English underwent significant change over time and contained large dialectical variations. Early Modern English, on the other hand, became more standardised and developed an established canon of literature that survives today.
*1476 – William Caxton started printing in Westminster; however, the language that he used reflected the variety of styles and dialects used by the authors who originally wrote the material.

=Tudor period (1485–1603)

=
*1485 – Caxton published Thomas Malory's '' Le Morte d'Arthur'', the first print bestseller in English. Malory's language, while archaic in some respects, was clearly Early Modern and was possibly a Yorkshire or Midlands dialect.
*1491 or 1492 – Richard Pynson started printing in London; his style tended to prefer Chancery Standard, the form of English used by the government.

Henry VIII

* 1509 – Pynson became the king's official printer.
*From 1525 – Publication of William Tyndale's Bible translation, which was initially banned.
*1539 – Publication of the '' Great Bible'', the first officially authorised Bible in English. Edited by Myles Coverdale, it was largely from the work of Tyndale. It was read to congregations regularly in churches, which familiarised much of the population of England with a standard form of the language.
*1549 – Publication of the first edition of the '' Book of Common Prayer'' in English, under the supervision of Thomas Cranmer (revised in 1552, 1559, 1604, and 1662), which standardised much of the wording of church services. Some have argued that since attendance at prayer book services was required by law for many years, the repetitive use of its language helped to standardise Modern English even more than the '' King James Bible'' (1611) did.
*1557 – Publication of '' Tottel's Miscellany''.

Elizabethan English

; Elizabethan era (1558–1603)
*1560 – The Geneva Bible was published. The New Testament was completed in 1557 by English Reformed exiles on the continent during the reign of Mary, and the complete Bible three years later, after Elizabeth succeeded the throne. This version was favoured by the Puritans and Pilgrims due to its more vigorous and forceful language. Its popularity and proliferation (due in large part to its copious notes) over the following decades sparked the production of the King James Bible to counter it.
*1582 – The Rheims and Douai Bible was completed, and the New Testament was released in Rheims, France, in 1582. It was the first complete English translation of the Bible that was officially sponsored and carried out by the Catholic Church (earlier translations into English, especially of the Psalms and Gospels, existed as far back as the 9th century, but it was the first Catholic English translation of the full Bible). Though the Old Testament was already complete, it was not published until 1609–1610, when it was released in two volumes. While it did not make a large impact on the English language at large, it certainly played a role in the development of English, especially in heavily Catholic English-speaking areas.
* Christopher Marlowe,
*1592 – '' The Spanish Tragedy'' by Thomas Kyd
* – Shakespeare's plays written

17th century

Jacobean and Caroline eras

=Jacobean era (1603–1625)

=

*1609 – Shakespeare's sonnets published
*Other playwrights:
**Ben Jonson
** Thomas Dekker
** Beaumont and Fletcher ( Francis Beaumont and John Fletcher)
** John Webster
*1607 – The first successful permanent English colony in the New World, Jamestown, is established in Virginia. Early vocabulary specific to American English comes from indigenous languages (such as moose, racoon).
*1611 – The ''King James Version'' was published, largely based on Tyndale's translation. It remained the standard Bible in the Church of England into the latter half of the twentieth century.
*1623 – Shakespeare's ''First Folio'' published

=Caroline era and English Civil War (1625–1649)

=

*1630–1651 – William Bradford, Governor of Plymouth Colony, wrote his journal. It will become '' Of Plymouth Plantation'', one of the earliest texts written in the American Colonies.
*1647 – Publication of the first Beaumont and Fletcher folio

Interregnum and Restoration

The English Civil War and the Interregnum were times of social and political upheaval and instability.
The dates for Restoration literature are a matter of convention and differ markedly from genre to genre. In drama, the "Restoration" may last until 1700, but in poetry, it may last only until 1666, the '' annus mirabilis'' (year of wonders), and in prose lasts until 1688. With the increasing tensions over succession and the corresponding rise in journalism and periodicals, or until possibly 1700, when those periodicals grew more stabilised.
*1651 – Publication of '' Leviathan'' by Thomas Hobbes.
*1660–1669 – Samuel Pepys wrote his diary, which will become an important eyewitness account of the Restoration Era.
*1662 – New edition of the ''Book of Common Prayer'', largely based on the 1549 and subsequent editions. It long remained a standard work in English.
*1667 – Publication of '' Paradise Lost'' by John Milton and of '' Annus Mirabilis'' by John Dryden.

Development to Modern English

The 17th-century port towns and their forms of speech gained influence over the old county towns. From around the 1690s onwards, England experienced a new period of internal peace and relative stability, which encouraged the arts including literature.

Modern English can be taken to have emerged fully by the beginning of the Georgian era in 1714, but English orthography remained somewhat fluid until the publication of Johnson's '' A Dictionary of the English Language'', in 1755.

The towering importance of William Shakespeare over the other Elizabethan authors was the result of his reception during the 17th and the 18th centuries, which directly contributes to the development of Standard English. Shakespeare's plays are therefore still familiar and comprehensible 400 years after they were written, but the works of Geoffrey Chaucer and William Langland, which had been written only 200 years earlier, are considerably more difficult for the average modern reader.

Orthography

The orthography of Early Modern English is recognisably similar to that of today, but spelling was unstable. Early Modern and Modern English both retain various orthographical conventions that predate the Great Vowel Shift.

Early Modern English spelling was broadly similar to that encountered in Middle English. Some of the changes that occurred were based on etymology (as with the silent that was added to words like , and ). Many spellings had still not been standardised. For example, ''he'' was spelled as both and in the same sentence in Shakespeare's plays and elsewhere.

Certain key orthographic features of Early Modern English spelling have not been retained:
*The letter had two distinct lowercase forms: (short ''s''), as is still used today, and ( long ''s''). The short ''s'' was always used at the end of a word and often elsewhere. The long ''s'', if used, could appear anywhere except at the end of a word. The double lowercase ''S'' was written variously , or (the last ligature is still used in German ß). That is similar to the alternation between medial (σ) and final lowercase sigma (ς) in Greek.
* and were not considered two distinct letters then but as still different forms of the same letter. Typographically, was frequent at the start of a word and elsewhere: hence ' (for modern ''unmoved'') and (for ''love''). The modern convention of using for the vowel sounds and for the consonant appears to have been introduced in the 1630s.Salmon, V., (in) Lass, R. (ed.), ''The Cambridge History of the English Language'', Vol. III, CUP 2000, p. 39. Also, was frequently represented by .
*Similarly, and were also still considered not as two distinct letters, but as different forms of the same letter: hence ' for ''joy'' and for ''just''. Again, the custom of using as a vowel and as a consonant began in the 1630s.
*The letter ( thorn) was still in use during the Early Modern English period but was increasingly limited to handwritten texts. In Early Modern English printing, was represented by the Latin (see Ye olde), which appeared similar to thorn in blackletter typeface . Thorn had become nearly totally disused by the late Early Modern English period, the last vestiges of the letter being its ligatures, (thee), (that), (thou), which were still seen occasionally in the 1611 ''King James Version'' and in Shakespeare's Folios.
*A silent was often appended to words, as in ' and '. The last consonant was sometimes doubled when the was added: hence ' (for ''man'') and ' (for ''run'').
*The sound was often written (as in ''son''): hence ', ' (for modern ''summer'', ''plumb'').
*The final syllable of words like ''public'' was variously spelt but came to be standardised as ''-ick''. The modern spellings with ''-ic'' did not come into use until the mid-18th century.
* was often used instead of .
*The vowels represented by and (for example in ''meet'' and ') changed, and became an alternative.

Phonology

Consonants

Most consonant sounds of Early Modern English have survived into present-day English; however, there are still a few notable differences in pronunciation:
*Today's "silent" consonants found in the consonant clusters of such words as ''knot, gnat, sword'' were still fully pronounced up until the mid-to-late 16th century and thus possibly by Shakespeare, though they were fully reduced by the early 17th century.
*The digraph , in words like ''night'', ''thought'' and ''daughter'', originally pronounced in much older English, was probably reduced to nothing (as it is today) or at least heavily reduced in sound to something like , , , or . It seems likely that much variation existed for many of these words. Upon its disappearance, it lengthened the previous vowel.
*The now-silent ''l'' of ''would'' and ''should'' may have persisted in being pronounced as late as 1700 in Britain and perhaps several decades longer in the British American colonies. The ''l'' in ''could'', however, first appearing in the early 16th century, was presumably never pronounced.
*The modern phoneme was not documented as occurring until the second half of the 17th century. Likely, that phoneme in a word like ''vision'' was pronounced as and in ''measure'' as .
*Most words with the spelling , such as ''what'', ''where'' and ''whale'', were still pronounced , rather than . That means, for example, that ''wine'' and ''whine'' were still pronounced differently, unlike in most varieties of English today.
*Early Modern English was rhotic. In other words, the ''r'' was always pronounced, but the precise nature of the typical rhotic consonant remains unclear. It was, however, certainly one of the following:
**The "R" of most varieties of English today: or a further forward sound
**The "trilled or rolled R": , perhaps with one contact , as in modern Scouse and Scottish English
**The "retroflex R": .
*In Early Modern English, the precise nature of the light and dark variants of the ''l'' consonant, respectively and , remains unclear.
*Word-final , as in ''sing'', was still pronounced until the late 16th century, when it began to coalesce into the usual modern pronunciation, . The original pronunciation is preserved in parts of England, in dialects such as Brummie, Mancunian and Scouse.
*H-dropping at the start of words was common, as it still is in informal English throughout most of England. In loanwords taken from Latin, Greek, or any Romance language, a written ''h'' was usually mute well into modern English times, e.g. in ''heritage'', ''history'', ''hermit'', ''hostage'', and still today in ''heir'', ''honor'', ''hour'' etc.
*With words originating from or passed through ancient Greek, ''th'' was commonly pronounced as ''t'', e.g. ''theme'', ''theater'', ''cathedral'', ''anthem''; this is still retained in some proper names as ''Thomas'' and a few common nouns like ''thyme''.

Vowels

The following information primarily comes from studies of the Great Vowel Shift; see the related chart.
*The modern English phoneme , as in ''glide'', ''rhyme'' and ''eye'', was , and was reduced word-finally. Early Modern rhymes indicate that was similar to the vowel that was used at the end of words like ''happy'', ''melody'' and ''busy''.
*, as in ''now'', ''out'' and ''ploughed'', was .
*, as in ''fed'', ''elm'' and ''hen'', was more or less the same as the phoneme represents today, sometimes approaching (which is still in the word ''pretty'').
* , as in ''name'', ''case'' and ''sake'', was a long monophthong. It shifted from to and finally to . Earlier in Early Modern English, ''mat'' and ''mate'' were near-homophones, with a longer vowel in the second word. Thus, Shakespeare rhymed words like ''haste'', ''taste'' and ''waste'' with ''last'' and ''shade'' with ''sad''. The more open pronunciation remains in some Northern England English and rarely in Irish English. During the 17th century, the phoneme variably merged with the phoneme as in ''day'', ''weigh'', and the merger survived into standard forms of Modern English, though a few dialects kept these vowels distinct at least to the 20th century (see ''pane''–''pain'' merger).
* (typically spelled or ) as in ''see'', ''bee'' and ''meet'', was more or less the same as the phoneme represents today, but it had not yet merged with the phoneme represented by the spellings or (and perhaps , particularly with ''fiend'', ''field'' and ''friend''), as in ''east'', ''meal'' and ''feat'', which were pronounced with or . However, words like ''breath'', ''dead'' and ''head'' may have already split off towards ).
*, as in ''bib'', ''pin'' and ''thick'', was more or less the same as the phoneme represents today.
*, as in ''stone'', ''bode'' and ''yolk'', was or . The phoneme was probably just beginning the process of merging with the phoneme , as in ''grow'', ''know'' and ''mow'', without yet achieving today's complete merger. The old pronunciation remains in some dialects, such as in Yorkshire, East Anglia, and Scotland.
*, as in ''rod'', ''top'' and ''pot'', was or , much like the corresponding RP sound.
*, as in ''taut'', ''taught'' and ''law'' was more open than in contemporary RP, being or (and thus being closer to Welsh and General American )
*, as in ''boy'', ''choice'' and ''toy'', is even less clear than other vowels. In the late 16th century, the similar but distinct phonemes , and all existed. By the late 17th century, they all merged. Because those phonemes were in such a state of flux during the whole Early Modern period (with evidence of rhyming occurring among them as well as with the precursor to ), scholarsSe
The History of English (online)
as well as David Crystal'
Original Pronunciation (online).
often assume only the most neutral possibility for the pronunciation of as well as its similar phonemes in Early Modern English: (which, if accurate, would constitute an early instance of the line–loin merger since had not yet fully developed in English).
* (as in ''drum'', ''enough'' and ''love'') and (as in ''could'', ''full'', ''put'') had not yet split and so were both pronounced in the vicinity of .
* occurred not only in words like ''food'', ''moon'' and ''stool'', but also all other words spelled with like ''blood'', ''cook'' and ''foot''. However, the vowel for some of those words was shortened at an early stage: either beginning or already in the process of approximating the Early Modern English . That phonological split among the words was a catalyst for the later foot–strut split and is called "early shortening" by John C. Wells. The words that came to be pronounced with the shortened vowel included, for example, ''good'' and ''blood''. They, like other words with /ʊ/, were subsequently subject to the foot–strut split and many of them, like ''drum'' and ''love'', came to be pronounced with the vowel and eventually . However, the words with a shortened vowel also seem to have included, at least in some pronunciations such as Shakespeare's and at certain stages, some words that are pronounced with the original non-shortened vowel in Present-Day English - e.g. ''brood'', ''doom'' and ''noon''. For example, ''doom'' and ''come'' rhyme in Shakespeare's writing for this reason.
* or occurred in words spelled with ''ew'' or ''ue'' such as ''due'' and ''dew''. In most dialects of Modern English, it became and by yod-dropping and so ''do'', ''dew'' and ''due'' are now perfect homophones in most American pronunciations, but a distinction between the two phonemes remains in other versions of English. There is, however, an additional complication in dialects with yod-coalescence (such as Australian English and younger RP), in which ''dew'' and ''due'' (homophonous with ''jew'') are distinguished from ''do'' purely by the initial consonant, without any vowel distinction.

The difference between the transcription of the EME diphthong offsets with , as opposed to the usual modern English transcription with is not meaningful in any way. The precise EME realizations are not known, and they vary even in modern English.

Rhoticity

The ''r'' sound (the phoneme ) was probably always pronounced following vowel sounds, as in modern General American, West Country English, Irish English, and Scottish English.

At the beginning of the Early Modern English period there were three non-open and non- schwa short vowels before in the syllable coda: , and (roughly equivalent to modern , and ; had not yet developed). In London English they gradually merged into a phoneme that became modern , known as the mergers. While spellings for words exist in the 1500s, these are descended from Old English words with the segments and suggesting that they may not be part of the merger. The earliest native speaker to comment on mergers between the classes is John Wallis in 1653, showing a near merger of and , with "turn" and "burn" having the vowel of "dull", and "virtue" with a slightly closer or unrounded vowel. However, a smaller number of speakers merge and instead. The full three-way mergers only completed in England around 1800.

Specific words

''Nature'' was pronounced approximately as and may have rhymed with ''letter'' or, early on, even ''latter''. ''One'' may have been pronounced ''own'', with both ''one'' and ''other'' using the era's long vowel, rather than today's vowels. ''Tongue'' derived from the sound of ''tong'' and rhymed with ''song''.Crystal, David (2011).
Sounding out Shakespeare: Sonnet Rhymes in Original Pronunciation
". In Vera Vasic (ed.) ''Jezik u Upotrebi: primenjena lingvsitikja u cast Ranku Bugarskom''. Novi Sad and Belgrade: Philosophy faculties. P. 298-300.

Grammar

Pronouns

Early Modern English had two second-person personal pronouns: ''thou'', the informal singular pronoun, and ''ye'', the plural (both formal and informal) pronoun and the formal singular pronoun.

"Thou" and "ye" were both common in the early 16th century (they can be seen, for example, in the disputes over Tyndale's translation of the Bible in the 1520s and the 1530s) but by 1650, "thou" seems old-fashioned or literary. It has effectively completely disappeared from Modern Standard English.

The translators of the ''King James Version'' of the Bible (begun 1604 and published 1611, while Shakespeare was at the height of his popularity) had a particular reason for keeping the informal "thou/thee/thy/thine/thyself" forms that were slowly beginning to fall out of spoken use, as it enabled them to match the Hebrew and Ancient Greek distinction between second person singular ("thou") and plural ("ye"). It was not to denote reverence (in the ''King James Version'', God addresses individual people and even Satan as "thou") but only to denote the singular. Over the centuries, however, the very fact that "thou" was dropping out of normal use gave it a special aura and so it gradually and ironically came to be used to express reverence in hymns and in prayers.

Like other personal pronouns, ''thou'' and ''ye'' have different forms dependent on their grammatical case; specifically, the objective form of ''thou'' is ''thee'', its possessive forms are ''thy'' and ''thine'', and its reflexive or emphatic form is ''thyself''.

The objective form of ''ye'' was ''you'', its possessive forms are ''your'' and ''yours'' and its reflexive or emphatic forms are ''yourself'' and ''yourselves''.

The older forms "mine" and "thine" had become "my" and "thy" before words beginning with a consonant other than ''h'', and "mine" and "thine" were retained before words beginning with a vowel or an ''h'', as in ''mine eyes'' or ''thine hand''.

Verbs

Tense and number

During the Early Modern period, the verb inflections became simplified as they evolved towards their modern forms:
*The third-person singular present lost its alternate inflections: ''-eth'' and ''-th'' became obsolete, and ''-s'' survived. (Both forms can be seen together in Shakespeare: "With her, that ''hateth'' thee and ''hates'' us all".)
*The plural present form became uninflected. Present plurals had been marked with ''-en'' and singulars with ''-th'' or ''-s'' (''-th'' and ''-s'' survived the longest, especially with the singular use of ''is'', ''hath'' and ''doth''). Marked present plurals were rare throughout the Early Modern period and ''-en'' was probably used only as a stylistic affectation to indicate rural or old-fashioned speech.
*The second-person singular indicative was marked in both the present and past tenses with ''-st'' or ''-est'' (for example, in the past tense, ''walkedst'' or ''gav'st''). Since the indicative past was not and still is not otherwise marked for person or number, the loss of ''thou'' made the past subjunctive indistinguishable from the indicative past for all verbs except ''to be''.

Modal auxiliaries

The modal auxiliaries cemented their distinctive syntactical characteristics during the Early Modern period. Thus, the use of modals without an infinitive became rare (as in "I must to Coventry"; "I'll none of that"). The use of modals' present participles to indicate aspect (as in "Maeyinge suffer no more the loue & deathe of Aurelio" from 1556), and of their preterite forms to indicate tense (as in "he follow'd Horace so very close, that of necessity he must fall with him") also became uncommon.

Some verbs ceased to function as modals during the Early Modern period. The present form of ''must'', ''mot'', became obsolete. ''Dare'' also lost the syntactical characteristics of a modal auxiliary and evolved a new past form (''dared''), distinct from the modal ''durst''.

Perfect and progressive forms

The perfect of the verbs had not yet been standardised to use only the auxiliary verb "to have". Some took as their auxiliary verb "to be", such as this example from the ''King James Version'': "But which of you... will say unto him... when he is come from the field, Go and sit down..." uke XVII:7 The rules for the auxiliaries for different verbs were similar to those that are still observed in German and French (see unaccusative verb).

The modern syntax used for the progressive aspect ("I am walking") became dominant by the end of the Early Modern period, but other forms were also common such as the prefix ''a-'' ("I am a-walking") and the infinitive paired with "do" ("I do walk"). Moreover, the ''to be'' + -''ing'' verb form could be used to express a passive meaning without any additional markers: "The house is building" could mean "The house is being built".

Vocabulary

A number of words that are still in common use in Modern English have undergone semantic narrowing.

The use of the verb "to suffer" in the sense of "to allow" survived into Early Modern English, as in the phrase "suffer the little children" of the ''King James Version'', but it has mostly been lost in Modern English. This use still exists in the idiom " to suffer fools gladly".

Also, this period includes one of the earliest Russian borrowings to English (which is historically a rare occasion itself); at least as early as 1600, the word " steppe" (rus. степь) first appeared in English in William Shakespeare's comedy '' A Midsummer Night's Dream''. It is believed that this is a possible indirect borrowing via either German or French.

The substantial borrowing of Latin and sometimes Greek words for abstract concepts, begun in Middle English, continued unabated, often terms for abstract concepts not available in English.

See also

* Early modern Britain
*English literature
* History of English
*Inkhorn term
* Elizabethan era, Jacobean era, Caroline era
* English Renaissance
* Shakespeare's influence
*Middle English, Modern English, Old English

References

External links

English Paleography
Examples for the study of English handwriting from the 16th–18th centuries from the Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library at Yale University{{dead link, date=March 2019

History of the English language
English
Languages attested from the 15th century
15th-century establishments in Europe
Languages extinct in the 17th century
17th-century disestablishments in Europe