Shake (roof)
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Wood shingles are thin, tapered pieces of wood primarily used to cover
roofs A roof (: roofs or rooves) is the top covering of a building, including all materials and constructions necessary to support it on the walls of the building or on uprights, providing protection against rain, snow, sunlight, extremes of tempera ...
and walls of buildings to protect them from the weather. Historically shingles, also known as shakes, were split from straight grained, knot free ''bolts'' of wood. Today shingles are mostly made by being cut which distinguishes them from shakes, which are made by being split out of a bolt. Wooden shingle roofs were prevalent in the North American colonies (for example in the Cape-Cod-style house), while in central and southern Europe at the same time,
thatch Thatching is the craft of building a roof with dry vegetation such as straw, Phragmites, water reed, Cyperaceae, sedge (''Cladium mariscus''), Juncus, rushes, Calluna, heather, or palm branches, layering the vegetation so as to shed water away fr ...
,
slate Slate is a fine-grained, foliated, homogeneous, metamorphic rock derived from an original shale-type sedimentary rock composed of clay or volcanic ash through low-grade, regional metamorphism. It is the finest-grained foliated metamorphic ro ...
and
tile Tiles are usually thin, square or rectangular coverings manufactured from hard-wearing material such as ceramic, Rock (geology), stone, metal, baked clay, or even glass. They are generally fixed in place in an array to cover roofs, floors, wal ...
were the prevalent roofing materials. In rural Scandinavia, wood shingles were a common roofing material until the 1950s. Wood shingles are susceptible to fire and cost more than other types of shingle so they are not as common today as in the past. Distinctive shingle patterns exist in various regions created by the size, shape, and application method. Special treatments such as swept valleys, combed ridges, decorative butt ends, and decorative patterns impart a special character to each building. Wood shingles can also be shaped by
steam bending Steam bending is a woodworking technique where wood is exposed to steam to make it pliable. Heat and moisture from steam can soften wood fibres enough so they can be bent and stretched, and when cooled down they will hold their new shape. In mode ...
to create a thatch-like appearance, with unique roof details and contours.


History

Historically, wooden shingles were usually thin (), relatively narrow (), of varying length (), and almost always planed or knifed smooth. The traditional method for making wooden shingles before the 19th century was to rive (hand split) them from straight-grained knot-free sections of logs pre-cut to the desired length known as bolts. These bolts were quartered or split into wedges. A
mallet A mallet is a tool used for imparting force on another object, often made of rubber or sometimes wood, that is smaller than a maul or beetle, and usually has a relatively large head. General overview The term is descriptive of the ...
and
froe A froe (or frow), shake axe or paling knife is a tool for Wood splitting, cleaving wood by splitting it along the grain. It is an L-shaped tool, used by hammering one edge of its blade into the end of a piece of wood in the direction of the grai ...
(or
axe An axe (; sometimes spelled ax in American English; American and British English spelling differences#Miscellaneous spelling differences, see spelling differences) is an implement that has been used for thousands of years to shape, split, a ...
) were used to split or rive out thin pieces of wood. The wood species varied according to available local woods, but only the more durable
heartwood Wood is a structural tissue/material found as xylem in the stems and roots of trees and other woody plants. It is an organic materiala natural composite of cellulosic fibers that are strong in tension and embedded in a matrix of lignin t ...
, or inner section, of the log, was usually used. The softer sapwood generally was not used because it deteriorated quickly. Because hand-split shingles were somewhat irregular along the split surface, it was necessary to dress or plane the shingles on a
shaving horse A shaving horse (shave horse, or shaving bench) is a combination of vice (tool), vice and workbench, used for green woodworking. Typical usage of the shaving horse is to create a round profile along a square piece, such as for a chair leg or to pr ...
with a
drawknife A drawknife (drawing knife, draw shave, shaving knife) is a traditional woodworking hand tool used to shape wood by removing shavings. It consists of a blade with a handle at each end. The blade is much longer (along the cutting edge) than it is d ...
or draw-shave to make them fit evenly on the roof. This reworking was necessary to provide a tight-fitting roof over typically open shingle lath or sheathing boards. Dressing, or smoothing of shingles, was almost universal, no matter what wood was used or in what part of the world the building was located, except in those cases where a temporary or very utilitarian roof was needed. Shingle fabrication was revolutionized in the early 19th century by steam-powered sawmills. Shingle mills made possible the production of uniform shingles in mass quantities. The sawn shingle of uniform taper and smooth surface eliminated the need to hand dress. The supply of wooden shingles was, therefore, no longer limited by local factors. These changes coincided with (and in turn increased) the popularity of architectural styles such as
Carpenter Gothic Carpenter Gothic, also sometimes called Carpenter's Gothic or Rural Gothic, is a North American architectural style-designation for an application of Gothic Revival architecture, Gothic Revival architectural detailing and picturesque massin ...
, Queen Anne, and
Shingle style architecture The shingle style is an American architectural style made popular by the rise of the New England school of architecture, which eschewed the highly ornamented patterns of the Eastlake style in Queen Anne style architecture in the United States, Que ...
that used shingles to great effect. Hand-split shingles continued to be used in many places well after the introduction of machine sawn shingles. There were other popular roofing materials, and some regions rich in slate had fewer examples of wooden shingle roofs. Some western "boom" towns used sheet metal because it was light and easily shipped. Slate, terneplate, and clay tile were used on ornate buildings and in cities that limited flammable wooden shingles. Wooden shingles, however, were never abandoned. Even in the 20th century, architectural styles such as the
Colonial Revival The Colonial Revival architectural style seeks to revive elements of American colonial architecture. The beginnings of the Colonial Revival style are often attributed to the Centennial Exhibition of 1876, which reawakened Americans to the arch ...
and
Tudor Revival Tudor Revival architecture, also known as mock Tudor in the UK, first manifested in domestic architecture in the United Kingdom in the latter half of the 19th century. Based on revival of aspects that were perceived as Tudor architecture, in rea ...
used wooden shingles.


Types

upright=1.35, Collage of different styles of wood shingles used in Chiloé architecture. The simplest form of wood shingle is a rectangle about long. The sides and butt are often irregular; the sides may taper, and the butt may not be square with the sides. Shingles that have been processed so that the butt is square to the sides are called rebutted and re-squared or rebutted and re-jointed shingles, often abbreviated R&R. Shingles and shakes may be tapered, straight, split, or sawn, and any combination of these except straight-tapered. Different species and quality of wood are used, as are different lengths and installation methods. Shakes and shingles may also be treated with wood preservatives and fire retardants before or after installation.


Shakes

A shake is a basic wooden shingle made from split logs. Shakes have traditionally been used for roofing and siding applications around the world. Higher-grade shakes are typically used for roofing purposes, while the lower grades are used for siding. In either situation, properly installed shakes provide long-lasting weather protection and a rustic aesthetic, though they require more maintenance than some other more modern weatherproofing systems. The term shake is sometimes used as a colloquialism for all wood shingles, though shingles are sawn rather than split. In traditional usage, "shake" refers to the board to which the shingle is nailed, not the shingle. Split wooden shingles are referred to as ''shag shingles''.


Modern shingles

Modern wooden shingles, both sawn and split, continue to be made, but they differ from the historical ones. Modern commercially available shakes are generally thicker than the historic hand-split counterpart and are usually left "undressed" with a rough, corrugated surface. The rough-surface shake is often considered more "rustic" and "historic," but this is a modern fashion. Some modern shingles are produced in pre-cut decorative patterns, sometimes called fancy-cut shingles, and are available pre-primed for later painting. The sides of rectangular shingles may be re-squared and re-butted, which means they have been reworked so the sides are parallel and the butt is square to the sides. These are more uniform and are installed more neatly as a result. Shingles are less durable than shakes, particularly in wet climates; shakes are finished with a drawknife or similar tool, which leaves a smooth surface that resists water penetration. This, in turn, slows the softening of wood microorganisms. Also, the method of splitting shakes rather than sawing ensures only straight-grained pieces (which are much stronger and less likely to warp).


Recycled rubber shake shingles

Modern recycling technologies have allowed the manufacture of rubber shake shingles, made mostly from old tires. These have the same look as a conventional wooden shingle but will not rot, curl, discolor, bend, crack, or take on moisture and will also not allow moisture to escape.


Production


Wood selection

In North America shakes are typically made from
California redwood ''Sequoia sempervirens'' ()''Sunset Western Garden Book,'' 1995: 606–607 is the sole living species of the genus '' Sequoia'' in the cypress family Cupressaceae (formerly treated in Taxodiaceae). Common names include coast redwood, coast ...
(''Sequoia sempervirens''),
western red cedar ''Thuja plicata'' is a large evergreen coniferous tree in the family Cupressaceae, native to the Pacific Northwest of North America. Its common name is western redcedar in the U.S. or western red cedar in the UK, and it is also called pacific re ...
(''Thuja plicata''), and
Atlantic white cedar ''Chamaecyparis thyoides'' (Atlantic white cedar, Atlantic white cypress, southern white cedar, whitecedar, or false-cypress), a species of ''Cupressaceae'', is native to the Atlantic coast of North America and is found from southern Maine to Geo ...
(Chamaecyparis thyoides), while in
Scandinavia Scandinavia is a subregion#Europe, subregion of northern Europe, with strong historical, cultural, and linguistic ties between its constituent peoples. ''Scandinavia'' most commonly refers to Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. It can sometimes also ...
and
Central Europe Central Europe is a geographical region of Europe between Eastern Europe, Eastern, Southern Europe, Southern, Western Europe, Western and Northern Europe, Northern Europe. Central Europe is known for its cultural diversity; however, countries in ...
they are more commonly made from
pine A pine is any conifer tree or shrub in the genus ''Pinus'' () of the family Pinaceae. ''Pinus'' is the sole genus in the subfamily Pinoideae. ''World Flora Online'' accepts 134 species-rank taxa (119 species and 15 nothospecies) of pines as cu ...
(''Pinus sylvestris'') and local variations of
spruce A spruce is a tree of the genus ''Picea'' ( ), a genus of about 40 species of coniferous evergreen trees in the family Pinaceae, found in the northern temperate and boreal ecosystem, boreal (taiga) regions of the Northern hemisphere. ''Picea'' ...
(''Picea''). There are various types of shakes, the main differentiating feature between shakes and other types of shingles is that shakes are split while most shingles are
saw A saw is a tool consisting of a tough blade, Wire saw, wire, or Chainsaw, chain with a hard toothed edge used to cut through material. Various terms are used to describe toothed and abrasive saws. Saws began as serrated materials, and when man ...
n on all sides. The sizes also vary from country to country; in North America shakes are usually made in lengths - the most common, ''barn shake'', or even shakes, which are typically used for siding. In Scandinavia shakes, traditionally used only for roofing, are generally smaller than in North America, measuring long, wide and thick, while in
Poland Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe. It extends from the Baltic Sea in the north to the Sudetes and Carpathian Mountains in the south, bordered by Lithuania and Russia to the northeast, Belarus and Ukrai ...
and
Slovakia Slovakia, officially the Slovak Republic, is a landlocked country in Central Europe. It is bordered by Poland to the north, Ukraine to the east, Hungary to the south, Austria to the west, and the Czech Republic to the northwest. Slovakia's m ...
they are usually long, wide and thick. Likewise wooden shingles are manufactured in differing lengths, in North America, . In
Latvia Latvia, officially the Republic of Latvia, is a country in the Baltic region of Northern Europe. It is one of the three Baltic states, along with Estonia to the north and Lithuania to the south. It borders Russia to the east and Belarus to t ...
, wooden shakes were defined in a 1933 national standard as long, wide and thick. They are a product of planing or running a knife along a log. The most popular shake wood in Latvia is aspen, before other softwoods like pine(!).


Log handling and transportation

Logs are typically cut into appropriate lengths using a
chainsaw A chainsaw (or chain saw) is a portable handheld power saw, power saw that cuts with a set of teeth attached to a rotating chain driven along a guide bar. Modern chainsaws are typically gasoline or electric and are used in activities such as t ...
, then the "ringers" or cuts are split with an
axe An axe (; sometimes spelled ax in American English; American and British English spelling differences#Miscellaneous spelling differences, see spelling differences) is an implement that has been used for thousands of years to shape, split, a ...
into cubes which are small enough to handle, usually , then stacked on a
rope A rope is a group of yarns, Plying, plies, fibres, or strands that are plying, twisted or braided together into a larger and stronger form. Ropes have high tensile strength and can be used for dragging and lifting. Rope is thicker and stronger ...
. The rope is looped around the stacked wood, and the ends passed through an eye spliced in the end. When the running end is pulled, it tightens the "sling" rope around the blocks preventing them from falling out. The slings are then flown to a central location to be loaded on
pallet A pallet (also called a skid) is a flat transport structure, which supports goods in a stable fashion while being lifted by a forklift, a pallet jack, a Loader (equipment), front loader, a Jack (mechanical), jacking device, or an erect cra ...
s for transport. Previously, swede saws,
crosscut saw A crosscut saw (thwart saw) is any saw designed for cutting wood perpendicular to (across) the wood grain. Crosscut saws may be small or large, with small teeth close together for fine work like woodworking or large for coarse work like log b ...
s and
hand saw In woodworking and carpentry, hand saws, also known as "panel saws", are used to cut pieces of wood into different shapes. This is usually done in order to Woodworking joints, join the pieces together and carve a wooden object. They operate by ...
s may have been used to cut the logs, and a
froe A froe (or frow), shake axe or paling knife is a tool for Wood splitting, cleaving wood by splitting it along the grain. It is an L-shaped tool, used by hammering one edge of its blade into the end of a piece of wood in the direction of the grai ...
(a heavy blade long and wide with a handle at one end perpendicular to the blade) was used to split the ringers. This blade was driven into the wood using a
mallet A mallet is a tool used for imparting force on another object, often made of rubber or sometimes wood, that is smaller than a maul or beetle, and usually has a relatively large head. General overview The term is descriptive of the ...
, then the wood could be pried apart by pulling on the handle if it would not split by driving the blade in alone. Before
helicopter A helicopter is a type of rotorcraft in which Lift (force), lift and thrust are supplied by horizontally spinning Helicopter rotor, rotors. This allows the helicopter to VTOL, take off and land vertically, to hover (helicopter), hover, and ...
s came into common use for transporting the slings, they were sometimes processed in
the bush "The bush" is a term mostly used in the English vernacular of Australia, New Zealand and South Africa, where it is largely synonymous with hinterlands or backwoods. The fauna and flora contained within the bush is typically native to the regi ...
and finished, hand-split shakes were carried out in a pack frame. In steep areas, cables were strung along the slope to form a tight line or tyrolean. Staples were driven into a block straddling the cable, and the block was slid down the cable to a landing accessible to a boat or truck.


Cutting

Both shakes and shingles must be edge
grain A grain is a small, hard, dry fruit (caryopsis) – with or without an attached husk, hull layer – harvested for human or animal consumption. A grain crop is a grain-producing plant. The two main types of commercial grain crops are cereals and ...
cut to prevent warping and splitting as the wood dries. When splitting blocks and manufacturing shakes or shingles, particular care must be taken to consider the orientation of the grain in the wood. Likewise, when bucking, care must be taken to ensure cuts are precisely perpendicular to the grain to minimize waste and maintain product quality. When bucking, the log must be cleared off well, so the grain can be seen clearly, allowing straight cuts perpendicular to the grain. When splitting, the ringers are typically split from the bark to the heart, perpendicular to the grain. The heartwood is removed by splitting parallel to the grain, and the bark and sap-wood and any imperfections such as rot or bug holes are removed. The initial split is always made on a
knot A knot is an intentional complication in Rope, cordage which may be practical or decorative, or both. Practical knots are classified by function, including List of hitch knots, hitches, List of bend knots, bends, List of loop knots, loop knots, ...
,
burl A burl (American English) or burr (British English) is a tree growth in which the grain has grown in a deformed manner. It is commonly found in the form of a rounded outgrowth on a tree trunk or branch that is filled with small knots from d ...
, check or other imperfection, to allow the blocks to be made as large as possible while disposing of any waste. The blocks should never be split where there is clear wood, or imperfections will be left in the block, or the block will have to be split too small in the process of removing flaws. When cutting large logs or severely twisted pieces, it is often necessary to "cant" or split the entire log into "slabs." A ringer is removed at each end of the tree to split a log, exposing the interior.
Wedge A wedge is a triangle, triangular shaped tool, a portable inclined plane, and one of the six simple machines. It can be used to separate two objects or portions of an object, lift up an object, or hold an object in place. It functions by conver ...
s are driven into the face to split off a slab, usually on a natural check or imperfection, which runs the entire length of the log. After the face begins to separate, wedges are driven into the resultant opening, starting very near the face and progressively working toward the other end of the log in small steps.


Manufacture of shakes and shingles from block form

Shake blocks are split into slats called blanks, using either a hydraulic press with a blade attached, called a cuber, or split by hand using a froe and mallet. These blanks are uniform in thickness throughout if split from the same edge without flipping the block. Alternatively, the splitter may flip the block after a blank is taken off each edge, which results in a tapered split from end to end, called tapers or hand-split. The blanks which are not tapered require further processing before application to create this taper and are run through a large band saw, pushed by hand to cut them from corner to corner forming a tapered shake, sawn on one face. Shingles are cut from the blocks using a circular saw, typically in diameter. The blocks are clamped in a carriage that slides back and forth across the blade, tilting and moving the block closer to the blade, with each pass automatically forms a tapered cut of the correct thickness. The shingle edges are then cut with another circular saw called a "trim saw" to remove irregular edges. The result is a tapered shingle sawn on all six sides. The thickness of the butt, or thicker end of the tapered cut, is usually thick but is also commonly made to be , and can be made to any custom specifications.


Chiloé, Chile

Nearly all the houses and buildings in colonial
Chiloé Archipelago The Chiloé Archipelago (, , ) is a group of islands lying off the coast of Chile, in the Los Lagos Region. It is separated from mainland Chile by the Chacao Channel in the north, the Sea of Chiloé in the east and the Gulf of Corcovado in the s ...
, Chile, were built with wood, and roof shingles were extensively employed in Chilota architecture. Roof shingles of
Fitzroya ''Fitzroya'' is a monotypic genus in the cypress family. The single living species, ''Fitzroya cupressoides'', is a tall, long-lived conifer native to the Andes mountains and coastal regions of southern Chile, and only to the Argentine Andes, w ...
came to be used as money called '' Real de Alerce''.


Gallery

File:Laziska. Wood shingles from the year 1467.png, Wood shingles (Fir = Abies alba Mill.) from the year 1467 in the ''All Saints Church'' in Laziska, Upper Silesia, Poland. File:Guty sindele.jpg, Church of Corpus Christi, Gutz, Czech Republic. Detail of shingle roof File:Tranby house 39 gnangarra.jpg, View of the under-side of wood shingle roof installed on strapping.
Tranby House Tranby (Peninsula Farm) is an historic farmers cottage located on Johnson Road in Maylands, Western Australia, Maylands overlooking the Swan River (Western Australia), Swan River opposite Kuljak Island, and is one of the oldest surviving buildi ...
, Western Australia File:Tyrvään Pyhän Olavin kirkon paanuja 2011.jpg, This highly decorative roof has a "closed valley", the valley where the two roofs meet is completely shingled and has metal flashing below the wood to prevent leaks. St. Olaf's Church in Tyrvää, Sastamala, Finland. File:Kostel sv Martina (Dolni Mesto) 3.jpg, A ''swept valley'' on the Church of Saint Martin,
Dolní Město Dolní Město () is a municipality and village in Havlíčkův Brod District in the Vysočina Region of the Czech Republic. It has about 1,000 inhabitants. Dolní Město lies approximately west of Havlíčkův Brod, north-west of Jihlava, and s ...
, Czech Republic. File:Bardeaux.XVe.et.XVIe.siecles.png, Decorative shingles are more uniform in size and installed in repeating patterns. Illustration from Dictionnaire raisonné de l'architecture française du XIe au XVIe siècle by Viollet-Le-Duc, 1856 File:Piney Coeur.JPG, Artistic patterns are possible. File:Froso kyrka klockstapel2.jpg, Face nailed shingles on the bell tower of Frösö Church,
Frösön Frösön (, ; " Frey's island") is the largest island in the lake Storsjön, Jämtland, Sweden. Part of the city Östersund is located on the island. During most of recorded history Frösön was the regional centre of Jämtland, and it is the loc ...
, Jämtland County, Sweden File:Bardeaux EgliseGrandIlet 02.JPG, Shingles made from ''
Acacia heterophylla ''Acacia heterophylla'', the highland tamarind,Forestry Abstracts, University of Oxford Commonwealth Forestry Bureau, p.327, 1939 is a tree (or shrub in its higher places) Endemism, endemic to Réunion, Réunion island where it is commonly named ...
'' wood,
Réunion Réunion (; ; ; known as before 1848) is an island in the Indian Ocean that is an overseas departments and regions of France, overseas department and region of France. Part of the Mascarene Islands, it is located approximately east of the isl ...
island File:Bystřice nad Olší, kostel a jeho okolí (10).JPG, Close-up view of shingles on the Church of Exaltation of the Cross in Bystřice, Frýdek-Místek District, Moravian-Silesian Region, Czech Republic) File:Lech - Schindelfassade 01.jpg, Details of a wooden shingle façade in Lech, Austria File:Kokera buki roof.jpg, A part of the wooden shingle roof of
Ginkaku-ji , officially named , is a Zen temple in the Sakyo ward of Kyoto, Japan. It is one of the constructions that represent the Higashiyama Culture of the Muromachi period. History Ashikaga Yoshimasa initiated plans for creating a retirement vi ...
, in
Japan Japan is an island country in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean off the northeast coast of the Asia, Asian mainland, it is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan and extends from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea ...
. File:Kinkakuji - postcard view.jpg,
Kinkaku-ji , officially named , is a Zen Buddhist temple in Kyoto, Japan and a tourist attraction. It is designated as a World Heritage Site, a National Special Historic Site, a National Special Landscape, and one of the 17 Historic Monuments of Ancient K ...
is roofed with wood shingles,
Kyoto Kyoto ( or ; Japanese language, Japanese: , ''Kyōto'' ), officially , is the capital city of Kyoto Prefecture in the Kansai region of Japan's largest and most populous island of Honshu. , the city had a population of 1.46 million, making it t ...
, Japan. File:JapanHomes061 BUNCH OF SHINGLES, NAILS, AND HAMMER.jpg, Japanese wood shingles, bamboo nails and a special hammer. The shingles are always split, and are very thin. File:Korea-Samcheok-Neowajip-Shingled house-02.jpg, Korean wood shingles,
Samcheok Samcheok (; ) is a city in Gangwon Province, South Korea. To the west are the Taebaek Mountains, which form a high flat plain of more than 1,000 meters, and to the east the coastal plain slopes sharply. Samcheok borders Donghae in the north, ...
, Gangwon Province,
South Korea South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea (ROK), is a country in East Asia. It constitutes the southern half of the Korea, Korean Peninsula and borders North Korea along the Korean Demilitarized Zone, with the Yellow Sea to the west and t ...
File:Korean Wood shingle, Neowa-jip, in Asan, South Korea.jpg, Korean Wood shingle, Neowa-jip,
Asan Asan (; ) is a Administrative divisions of South Korea, city in South Chungcheong Province, South Korea. It borders the Seoul Capital Area to the north. Asan has a population of approximately 400,000. Asan is known for its many hot springs an ...
,
Gyeonggi Province Gyeonggi Province (, ) is the most populous province in South Korea. Seoul, the nation's largest city and capital, is in the heart of the area but has been separately administered as a provincial-level ''special city'' since 1946. Incheon, ...
in South Korea


See also

* Redcedar bolt *
Roof shingle A roof’s shingles are a roof covering consisting of individual overlapping elements. These elements are typically flat, rectangular shapes laid in courses from the bottom edge of the roof up, with each successive course overlapping the joint ...
*
Shingle style architecture The shingle style is an American architectural style made popular by the rise of the New England school of architecture, which eschewed the highly ornamented patterns of the Eastlake style in Queen Anne style architecture in the United States, Que ...
*
Stave church A stave church is a medieval wooden Christian church building once common in north-western Europe. The name derives from the building's structure of post and lintel construction, a type of timber framing where the load-bearing ore-pine posts ...
*
Covering (construction) In construction, covering is the exterior layer of a building's roof. The covering ensures waterproofing by directing and collecting rainwater. It also provides mechanical protection against various external elements such as dust and intrusions. A ...


References


External links


Cedar Shake and Shingle Bureau (North America) installation and maintenance guidelines.

Installation, Care, and Maintenance of Wood Shake and Shingle Roofs
United States Department of Agriculture The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) is an executive department of the United States federal government that aims to meet the needs of commercial farming and livestock food production, promotes agricultural trade and producti ...

The Wood Shake and Shingle Roof Hazard

Indications Of Cedar Shingles Or Shake Shingles That Need Replacement.
{{DEFAULTSORT:Wood Shingle Building materials Roofs Articles containing video clips Roofing materials Shinto architecture