Serpula Lacrymans
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''Serpula lacrymans'' is a species of
fungi A fungus (: fungi , , , or ; or funguses) is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and mold (fungus), molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as one ...
known for causing
dry rot Dry rot is wood decay caused by one of several species of fungi that digest parts of wood which give it strength and stiffness. It was previously used to describe any decay of cured wood in ships and buildings by a fungus which resulted in a ...
. It is a
basidiomycete Basidiomycota () is one of two large divisions that, together with the Ascomycota, constitute the subkingdom Dikarya (often referred to as the "higher fungi") within the kingdom Fungi. Members are known as basidiomycetes. More specifically, Basid ...
in the order
Boletales The Boletales are an order of Agaricomycetes containing over 1300 species with a diverse array of fruiting body types. The boletes are the best known members of this group, and until recently, the Boletales were thought to only contain boletes. ...
. It has the ability to rapidly colonise sites through unique and highly specialised mycelium which also leads to greater degradation rates of wood cellulose.


Taxonomy

The species was first described under the name ''Boletus lacrymans'' by
Franz Xavier von Wulfen Franz Xaver Freiherr von Wulfen (5 November 1728 – 17 March 1805) was an Austrian botanist, zoologist, mineralogist, alpinist, and Jesuit priest. He is credited with discovering the flowering plants ''Wulfenia carinthiaca'', ''Saxifraga mo ...
in 1781. It was transferred to the genus ''
Serpula ''Serpula'' (also known as calcareous tubeworm, serpulid tubeworm, fanworm, or plume worm) is a genus of sessile, marine annelid tube worms that belongs to the family Serpulidae. Serpulid worms are very similar to tube worms of the closely r ...
'' by
Petter Karsten Petter Adolf Karsten (16 February 1834 – 22 March 1917) was a Finnish mycologist, the foremost expert on the fungi of Finland in his day, and known in consequence as the "father of Finnish mycology". Karsten was born in Merimasku near Turku ...
in 1884. The
specific epithet In Taxonomy (biology), taxonomy, binomial nomenclature ("two-term naming system"), also called binary nomenclature, is a formal system of naming species of living things by giving each a name composed of two parts, both of which use Latin gramm ...
is derived from the
Latin Latin ( or ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken by the Latins (Italic tribe), Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio), the lower Tiber area aroun ...
words ''serpula'' for "creeping" (as in a serpent) and ''lacrymans'', meaning "making tears".


Environment

''Serpula lacrymans'' has a preference for temperatures of but can survive any temperature from . It is not clear how much light is needed to promote ''Serpula lacrymans'' growth. In terms of aeration ''Serpula lacrymans'' often grows near ventilation shafts which shows a preference for concentrated oxygen. A moisture content of 30 to 40 percent is its ideal level in wood to promote fruit body formation. It appears that ''Serpula lacrymans'' requires an environment where both inorganic and organic materials are present. The fungus uses
calcium Calcium is a chemical element; it has symbol Ca and atomic number 20. As an alkaline earth metal, calcium is a reactive metal that forms a dark oxide-nitride layer when exposed to air. Its physical and chemical properties are most similar to it ...
and iron
ion An ion () is an atom or molecule with a net electrical charge. The charge of an electron is considered to be negative by convention and this charge is equal and opposite to the charge of a proton, which is considered to be positive by convent ...
s extracted from
plaster Plaster is a building material used for the protective or decorative coating of walls and ceilings and for moulding and casting decorative elements. In English, "plaster" usually means a material used for the interiors of buildings, while "re ...
,
brick A brick is a type of construction material used to build walls, pavements and other elements in masonry construction. Properly, the term ''brick'' denotes a unit primarily composed of clay. But is now also used informally to denote building un ...
, and stone to aid the breakdown of wood, which results in brown rot.


Distribution

Although it is a common indoor biodeterioration agent, it has only been found in a few natural environments, the
Himalayas The Himalayas, or Himalaya ( ), is a mountain range in Asia, separating the plains of the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau. The range has some of the Earth's highest peaks, including the highest, Mount Everest. More than list of h ...
,
Northern California Northern California (commonly shortened to NorCal) is a geocultural region that comprises the northern portion of the U.S. state of California, spanning the northernmost 48 of the state's List of counties in California, 58 counties. Northern Ca ...
, the
Czech Republic The Czech Republic, also known as Czechia, and historically known as Bohemia, is a landlocked country in Central Europe. The country is bordered by Austria to the south, Germany to the west, Poland to the northeast, and Slovakia to the south ...
and east Asia. A recent study on the evolutionary origin and spread of this species using genetic markers (
amplified fragment length polymorphism Amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP-PCR or AFLP) is a PCR-based tool used in genetics research, DNA fingerprinting, and in the practice of genetic engineering. Developed in the early 1990s by Pieter Vos, AFLP uses restriction enzymes t ...
s, DNA sequences and
microsatellite A microsatellite is a tract of repetitive DNA in which certain Sequence motif, DNA motifs (ranging in length from one to six or more base pairs) are repeated, typically 5–50 times. Microsatellites occur at thousands of locations within an organ ...
s) on a worldwide sample of specimens suggested the existence of two main lineages, a nonaggressive lineage found in North America, and an aggressive lineage found on all continents, both in natural environments and buildings.


Impact on structures

''Serpula lacrymans'' is considered to be the most damaging destroyer of indoor wood construction materials in
temperate In geography, the temperate climates of Earth occur in the middle latitudes (approximately 23.5° to 66.5° N/S of the Equator), which span between the tropics and the polar regions of Earth. These zones generally have wider temperature ran ...
regions. In the United Kingdom alone, building owners spent at least £150 million annually to rectify damage caused by dry rot.


Genome

Three variants/strains of ''S. lacrymans'' have been sequenced by the Joint Genome Institute (JGI) and its collaborators, and sequence data is available via their MycoCosm portal. One genome is from ''S. lacrymans'' S7.9 (v2.0). The genome assembly is 42.73 Mbp, with a predicted number of 12789 genes. The second genome is from ''S. lacrymans'' S7.3 (v2.0). The genome assembly is 47 Mbp, with a predicted number of 14495 genes. The third genome is from ''S. lacrymans'' var ''shastensis'' SHA21-2 (v1.0). The genome assembly is 45.98 Mbp, with a predicted number of 13805 genes.


Natural products genes

The ''S. lacrymans'' genome encodes six annotated polyketide synthases (PKS1-PKS6), 15 nonribosomal peptide synthetases (NPS1-NPS4, NPS7, NPS13-NPS15, NPS17, and NPS18), and two hybrids thereof (NPS6, NPS8, and NPS16). Additionally, the genome encodes for various putative adenylate-forming reductases (NPS5, NPS9-NPS12). ''NPS3'' was overexpressed in ''E. coli'' and characterized as an atromentin/quinone synthetase that catalyzes the formation of atromentin, similar to GreA; InvA1,2 and 5; and AtrA from ''Suillus grevillei'', ''Tapinella panuoides'', ''Paxillus involutus'', respectively. ''NPS3'' and its adjacent clustered aminotransferase gene (''AMT1'') were also found to be up-regulated during co-incubation with bacteria (Tauber et al., 2016).


Natural products

The genus ''Serpula'', including ''S. lacrymans'' and ''S. himantoides'', is known to produce three classes of chemical compounds:
pulvinic acid Pulvinic acids are natural chemical pigments found in some lichens, derived biosynthetically from the aromatic amino acids phenylalanine and tyrosine, via dimerization and oxidative ring-cleavage of arylpyruvic acids, a process that also produces ...
-type family, himanimides, and polyine acids. Within the pulvinic acid-type family,
atromentin Atromentin is a natural chemical compound found in Agaricomycetes fungi in the orders Agaricales and Thelephorales. It can also be prepared by laboratory synthesis. Chemically, it is a polyphenol and a benzoquinone. Occurrences Atromentin has ...
-derived compounds include
variegatic acid Variegatic acid (3,3',4,4'-tetrahydroxypulvinic acid) is an orange pigment found in some mushrooms. It is responsible for the bluing reaction seen in many bolete mushrooms when they are injured. When mushroom tissue containing variegatic acid is e ...
,
xerocomic acid Xerocomic acid is a red-orange pigment found in fungi of the order ''Boletales'' (and is named after the genus ''Xerocomus''). It is the precursor to variegatic acid, and is preceded by atromentic acid and atromentin. As an example, it is isolated ...
,
isoxerocomic acid Isoxerocomic acid is a red-orange pigment found in ''Boletales''. It is the precursor to variegatic acid, and is preceded by atromentic acid and atromentin. As an example, it is isolated from ''Serpula lacrymans''. It is soluble in methanol ...
,
atromentic acid Atromentic acid is a red-orange pigment found in fungi within the Boletales group. It is the precursor to variegatic acid and xerocomic acid, and is preceded by atromentin. As an example, it is isolated from ''Serpula lacrymans''. It is soluble i ...
, variegatorubin,
xerocomorubin Xerocomorubin is a pigment from the fungus order Boletales. It is the oxidized form of isoxerocomic acid. Air oxidation is responsible its formation, and it oxidizes faster to a similar pulvinic acid type pigment oxidized variant, variegatorubin. ...
, and other variants of these pigments. Pulvinic acid-type family pigments were found to be secreted during co-incubation with various bacteria.Tauber et al., 2016


References

{{Authority control Boletales Wood-decay fungi Fungi described in 1781 Fungi of Asia Fungi of Europe Fungi of North America Fungus species