) is the

upper house An upper house is one of two chambers of a bicameral legislature, the other chamber being the lower house.''Bicameralism'' (1997) by George Tsebelis The house formally designated as the upper house is usually smaller and often has more restric ...

in the

bicameral Bicameralism is a type of legislature, one divided into two separate assemblies, chambers, or houses, known as a bicameral legislature. Bicameralism is distinguished from unicameralism, in which all members deliberate and vote as a single gro ...

Parliament of Romania The Parliament of Romania ( ro, Parlamentul României) is the national bicameral legislature of Romania, consisting of the Chamber of Deputies ( ro, Camera Deputaților) and the Senate ( ro, Senat). It meets at the Palace of the Parliament in B ...

. It has 136 seats (before the 2016 Romanian legislative election the total number of elected representatives was 176), to which members are elected by direct popular vote using

party-list proportional representation Party-list proportional representation (list-PR) is a subset of proportional representation electoral systems in which multiple candidates are elected (e.g., elections to parliament) through their position on an electoral list. They can also be u ...

in 43 electoral districts (the 41 counties, the city of Bucharest plus 1 constituency for the Romanians living abroad), to serve four-year terms.

History

First Senate (1859–1944)

The parliamentary history of Romania is seen as beginning in May 1831 in

Wallachia Wallachia or Walachia (; ro, Țara Românească, lit=The Romanian Land' or 'The Romanian Country, ; archaic: ', Romanian Cyrillic alphabet: ) is a historical and geographical region of Romania. It is situated north of the Lower Danube and s ...

, where a constitution called

Regulamentul Organic ''Regulamentul Organic'' (, Organic Regulation; french: Règlement Organique; russian: Органический регламент, Organichesky reglament)The name also has plural versions in all languages concerned, referring to the dual na ...

("Organic Statute") was promulgated by the

Russian Empire The Russian Empire was an empire and the final period of the List of Russian monarchs, Russian monarchy from 1721 to 1917, ruling across large parts of Eurasia. It succeeded the Tsardom of Russia following the Treaty of Nystad, which ended th ...

and adopted. In January 1832 it came into force in

Moldavia Moldavia ( ro, Moldova, or , literally "The Country of Moldavia"; in Romanian Cyrillic: or ; chu, Землѧ Молдавскаѧ; el, Ἡγεμονία τῆς Μολδαβίας) is a historical region and former principality in Centra ...

also. This laid the foundations for the parliamentary institution in the two Romanian principalities. At the Congress of Paris of 1856, Russia gave up to Moldavia the left bank of the mouth of the

Danube The Danube ( ; ) is a river that was once a long-standing frontier of the Roman Empire and today connects 10 European countries, running through their territories or being a border. Originating in Germany, the Danube flows southeast for , ...

, including part of

Bessarabia Bessarabia (; Gagauz: ''Besarabiya''; Romanian: ''Basarabia''; Ukrainian: ''Бессара́бія'') is a historical region in Eastern Europe, bounded by the Dniester river on the east and the Prut river on the west. About two thirds of ...

, and also gave up its claim to be the protector of Christians in the

Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire, * ; is an archaic version. The definite article forms and were synonymous * and el, Оθωμανική Αυτοκρατορία, Othōmanikē Avtokratoria, label=none * info page on book at Martin Luther University) ...

. Moldavia and Wallachia, while remaining under the

suzerainty Suzerainty () is the rights and obligations of a person, state or other polity who controls the foreign policy and relations of a tributary state, while allowing the tributary state to have internal autonomy. While the subordinate party is cal ...

of the Ottomans, were recognized as quasi-independent self-governing principalities under the protection of the other European Powers. The Paris Convention of 19 August 1858 promulgated ''Statutul Dezvoltător'' ("Expanding Statute"), to introduce a

parliament, with an upper house named in Romanian ''Corpul Ponderator'' ("Moderating Body"). This was later renamed the ''Senat''. A formal Union of the two principalities came in 1859. On the initiative of

Alexandru Ioan Cuza Alexandru Ioan Cuza (, or Alexandru Ioan I, also anglicised as Alexander John Cuza; 20 March 1820 – 15 May 1873) was the first ''domnitor'' (Ruler) of the Romanian Principalities through his double election as prince of Moldavia on 5 Januar ...

, a

plebiscite A referendum (plural: referendums or less commonly referenda) is a direct vote by the electorate on a proposal, law, or political issue. This is in contrast to an issue being voted on by a representative. This may result in the adoption of ...

in 1864 enlarged the principle of national representation. The

1866 Constitution of Romania The 1866 Constitution of Romania was the fundamental law that capped a period of nation-building in the Danubian Principalities, which had united in 1859. Drafted in a short time and closely modeled on the 1831 Constitution of Belgium, then consi ...

proclaimed

constitutional monarchy A constitutional monarchy, parliamentary monarchy, or democratic monarchy is a form of monarchy in which the monarch exercises their authority in accordance with a constitution and is not alone in decision making. Constitutional monarchies di ...

as Romania's form of government, on the basis of national sovereignty and the

separation of powers Separation of powers refers to the division of a state's government into branches, each with separate, independent powers and responsibilities, so that the powers of one branch are not in conflict with those of the other branches. The typica ...

. Legislative power was to be exercised by the new Prince (

Carol I of Romania Carol I or Charles I of Romania (20 April 1839 – ), born Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, was the monarch of Romania from 1866 to his death in 1914, ruling as Prince (''Domnitor'') from 1866 to 1881, and as King from 1881 to 1914. He w ...

) and a bi-cameral parliament, with an Assembly of Deputies and a Senate. On 9 May 1877, the Declaration of Romania's independence was read under the dome of the Romanian Parliament. The 1923 Constitution, approved by both houses of parliament in May 1923, again entrusted legislative power to the Senate, the Assembly of Deputies, and the King. The constitution instituted the membership by right (''senator de drept'') in the Senate for: * The heir to the

throne A throne is the seat of state of a potentate or dignitary, especially the seat occupied by a sovereign on state occasions; or the seat occupied by a pope or bishop on ceremonial occasions. "Throne" in an abstract sense can also refer to the mon ...

; *

Metropolitan bishop In Christian churches with episcopal polity, the rank of metropolitan bishop, or simply metropolitan (alternative obsolete form: metropolite), pertains to the diocesan bishop or archbishop of a metropolis. Originally, the term referred to the b ...

s and diocesan bishops of the Orthodox and Greek-Catholic churches; * Heads of state-recognised religious bodies; * The president of the

Romanian Academy The Romanian Academy ( ro, Academia Română ) is a cultural forum founded in Bucharest, Romania, in 1866. It covers the scientific, artistic and literary domains. The academy has 181 active members who are elected for life. According to its by ...

; * Former presidents of the Council of Ministers; * Former ministers with at least six years' seniority; * Former presidents of either legislative chamber who held this function for at least eight ordinary sessions; * Former senators and deputies elected to at least ten legislatures, irrespective of their duration; * Former presidents of the High Court of Cassation and Justice; * Reserve and retired generals; * Former presidents of the National Assemblies at Chișinău, Cernăuți, and

Alba Iulia Alba Iulia (; german: Karlsburg or ''Carlsburg'', formerly ''Weißenburg''; hu, Gyulafehérvár; la, Apulum) is a city that serves as the seat of Alba County in the west-central part of Romania. Located on the Mureș River in the historica ...

, which previously proclaimed their respective provinces' union with Romania in 1918 (''see Union of Transylvania with Romania,

Union of Bessarabia with Romania The union of Bessarabia with Romania was proclaimed on by Sfatul Țării, the legislative body of the Moldavian Democratic Republic. This state had the same borders of the region of Bessarabia, which was annexed by the Russian Empire following t ...

''). Additionally, the Senate included an elective element, chosen by

corporatist Corporatism is a collectivist political ideology which advocates the organization of society by corporate groups, such as agricultural, labour, military, business, scientific, or guild associations, on the basis of their common interests. Th ...

electoral colleges, including the chambers of commerce, industry, and agriculture, as well as university professors. In February 1938, amid the political crisis which soon led to the

Second World War World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the World War II by country, vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great power ...

, King Carol II imposed a more authoritarian monarchy. Under the Constitution of 1938, Parliament lost some of its main powers. The Senate was to be composed of members appointed by the King, members by right, and members elected in single-member electoral areas, in the same manner as Assembly members. The proportion of appointed and elected members was to be equal, while senators by right still had to meet the conditions set out in the 1923 Constitution.

Suspension and abolition (1940–1944)

In September 1940, after the abdication of King Carol, the

National Legionary State The National Legionary State was a totalitarian fascist regime which governed Romania for five months, from 14 September 1940 until its official dissolution on 14 February 1941. The regime was led by General Ion Antonescu in partnership with th ...

suspended the parliament but itself lasted less than five months. It was succeeded by

Ion Antonescu Ion Antonescu (; ; – 1 June 1946) was a Romanian military officer and marshal who presided over two successive wartime dictatorships as Prime Minister and '' Conducător'' during most of World War II. A Romanian Army career officer who ma ...

's military dictatorship and the parliament remained suspended. After the royal coup of 23 August 1944, on 15 July 1946 the government controlled by the

Romanian Communist Party The Romanian Communist Party ( ro, Partidul Comunist Român, , PCR) was a communist party in Romania. The successor to the pro-Bolshevik wing of the Socialist Party of Romania, it gave ideological endorsement to a communist revolution that wou ...

(PCR) issued an electoral law that re-organized the parliament as a single legislative body, called the Assembly of Deputies, thus disestablishing the Senate. Under the 1948 constitution this became the Great National Assembly, a relatively impotent body subordinate to the power of the

(PCR).

Senate recreated (1990)

The

Romanian Revolution of 1989 The Romanian Revolution ( ro, Revoluția Română), also known as the Christmas Revolution ( ro, Revoluția de Crăciun), was a period of violent civil unrest in Romania during December 1989 as a part of the Revolutions of 1989 that occurred ...

opened the way to restoring pluralistic electoral democracy. Under the country's new post-communist Constitution of 1991, approved by a national referendum in 1991, Romania returned to a bicameral parliamentary system, in which the Senate is an elected body. A

referendum A referendum (plural: referendums or less commonly referenda) is a direct vote by the electorate on a proposal, law, or political issue. This is in contrast to an issue being voted on by a representative. This may result in the adoption of ...

on modifying the size and structure of the Parliament from the current bicameral one with 137 senators and 334 deputies to a unicameral one with a maximum of 300 seats was held on 22 November 2009, at the same time as the first round of the

2009 presidential election 9 (nine) is the natural number following and preceding . Evolution of the Arabic digit In the beginning, various Indians wrote a digit 9 similar in shape to the modern closing question mark without the bottom dot. The Kshatrapa, Andhra a ...

. The electors approved by a percentage of 77.78% (50.95% turnout) the adoption of a unicameral Parliament, however as of the necessary constitutional changes to achieve this have not been put into effect.

Former locations

The first Romanian Senate functioned between 1864 and 1869 in a small building, which still exists today on the Calea Șerban Vodă. Once the new building of the

University of Bucharest The University of Bucharest ( ro, Universitatea din București), commonly known after its abbreviation UB in Romania, is a public university founded in its current form on by a decree of Prince Alexandru Ioan Cuza to convert the former Princ ...

was inaugurated, the Senate moved in a bigger hall in that building. Between 1929 and 1940, it was temporarily housed in a building on the Regina Elisabeta Boulevard, while a new Palace of the Senate was to be built in today's Națiunile Unite Square. This building was never finished. After the

Romanian Revolution The Romanian Revolution ( ro, Revoluția Română), also known as the Christmas Revolution ( ro, Revoluția de Crăciun), was a period of violent civil unrest in Romania during December 1989 as a part of the Revolutions of 1989 that occurred ...

of 1989, the Senate was housed in the "Palace of the Senate" ( ro, Palatul Senatului), located in Revolution Square. That U-shaped structure was built from 1938 to 1941 under engineer 's coordination, following the plans of architect Emil Nădejde. It housed the Council of Ministers and from 1958 to 1989 it was the headquarters of the Central Committee of the

(PCR). During the Revolution, Romanian President

Nicolae Ceaușescu Nicolae Ceaușescu ( , ; – 25 December 1989) was a Romanian communist politician and dictator. He was the general secretary of the Romanian Communist Party from 1965 to 1989, and the second and last Communist leader of Romania. He w ...

and his wife Elena fled by helicopter from the roof of the building. In 2005 the senators moved into the Palace of the Parliament, joining their colleagues from the

Chamber of Deputies The chamber of deputies is the lower house in many bicameral legislatures and the sole house in some unicameral legislatures. Description Historically, French Chamber of Deputies was the lower house of the French Parliament during the Bourbon ...

. "Palatul Senatului" now houses the Ministry of Internal Affairs.

Composition

2020–2024

, - ! style="text-align:center;" colspan=2 rowspan=2 , Party ! style="text-align:center;" colspan=2 , Election seating ! style="text-align:center;" rowspan=2 , Lost ! style="text-align:center;" rowspan=2 , Won ! style="text-align:center;" colspan=2 , Present seating , - ! style="text-align:center;" , Seats ! style="text-align:center;" , % ! style="text-align:center;" , Seats ! style="text-align:center;" , % , - , , style="text-align:left;" ,

Social Democratic Party The name Social Democratic Party or Social Democrats has been used by many political parties in various countries around the world. Such parties are most commonly aligned to social democracy as their political ideology. Active parties Fo ...

, style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 47 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 34.55% , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 1 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 1 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 46 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 33.82% , - , , style="text-align:left;" , National Liberal Party , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 41 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 30.14% , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 4 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 2 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 39 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 28.67% , - , ! style="background-color: " , , style="text-align:left;" , Save Romania Union , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 25 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 18.38% , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 3 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 0 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 22 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 16.17% , - , ! style="background-color: " , , style="text-align:left;" ,

Alliance for the Union of Romanians The Alliance for the Union of Romanians ( ro, Alianța pentru Unirea Românilor, AUR) is a right-wing populist and nationalist political party currently active in Romania and Moldova. It was founded on 19 September 2019. This was done with the ...

, style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 14 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 10.29% , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 2 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 0 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 12 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 8.82% , - , , style="text-align:left;" , Democratic Alliance of Hungarians in Romania , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 9 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 6.61% , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 0 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 0 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 9 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 6.61% , - , , style="text-align:left;" , Force of the Right , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , — , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , — , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 0 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 3 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 3 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 2.20% , - , ! style="background-color: " , , style="text-align:left;" , Social Liberal Humanist Party , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , — , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , — , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 0 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 1 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 1 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 0.73% , - , ! style="background-color: " , , style="text-align:left;" , Romanian Nationhood Party , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , — , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , — , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 0 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 1 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 1 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 0.73% , - , , style="text-align:left;" , Independents , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , — , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , — , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 4 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 4 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 2 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 1.47% , - , , style="text-align:left;" ,

Vacant Within the context of building construction and building codes, "occupancy" refers to the use, or intended use, of a building, or portion of a building, for the shelter or support of persons, animals or property. A closely related meaning is th ...

, style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , — , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , — , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 0 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 1 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 1 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 0.73% , - ! align=left colspan=2, Total ! 136 ! 100 ! colspan=2 , — ! 136 ! 100

2016–2020

, - ! style="text-align:center;" colspan=2 rowspan=2 , Party ! style="text-align:center;" colspan=2 , Election seating ! style="text-align:center;" rowspan=2 , Lost ! style="text-align:center;" rowspan=2 , Won ! style="text-align:center;" colspan=2 , End seating , - ! style="text-align:center;" , Seats ! style="text-align:center;" , % ! style="text-align:center;" , Seats ! style="text-align:center;" , % , - , , style="text-align:left;" ,

, style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 67 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 49.26% , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 10 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 2 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 59 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 43.38% , - , , style="text-align:left;" , National Liberal Party , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 30 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 22.05% , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 4 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 0 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 26 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 19.11% , - , , style="text-align:left;" , Save Romania Union , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 13 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 9.55% , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 0 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 0 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 13 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 9.55% , - , , style="text-align:left;" , Democratic Alliance of Hungarians in Romania , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 9 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 6.61% , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 1 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 1 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 9 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 6.61% , - , , style="text-align:left;" , Alliance of Liberals and Democrats , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 9 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 6.61% , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 5 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 3 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 7 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 5.14% , - , , style="text-align:left;" , People's Movement Party , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 8 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 5.88% , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 4 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 1 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 5 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 3.67% , - , ! style="background-color: " , , style="text-align:left;" , Humanist Power Party , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , — , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , — , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 0 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 2 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 2 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 1.47% , - , , style="text-align:left;" , Independents , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , — , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , — , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 0 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 15 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 15 , style="text-align:right;vertical-align:top;" , 11.02% , - ! align=left colspan=2, Total ! 136 ! 100 ! colspan=2 , — ! 136 ! 100

2012–2016

2008–2012

In December 2008, the Democratic Liberal Party (PDL) and the

political alliance A political group is a group consisting of political parties or legislators of aligned ideologies. A technical group is similar to a political group, but with members of differing ideologies. International terms Equivalent terms are used diffe ...

established between the

(PSD) and Conservative Party (PC) formed a coalition government.

2004–2008

In the 2004 Romanian general election, held on 28 November 2004, the Justice and Truth Alliance (DA) won the greatest number of seats, even though no party won an outright majority. The President of the Senate for this legislature was Nicolae Văcăroiu, who was elected on 20 December 2004. Following his ''ad interim'' presidency of Romania, he delegated his attributions to the vice president Doru Ioan Tărăcilă. After Văcăroiu was sworn in as president of the Court of Accounts, Ilie Sârbu was elected as the new President of the Senate. Until April 2007, the Justice and Truth Alliance governed in coalition with other minor parties. In April 2007, after the break-up of the Justice and Truth Alliance, the National Liberal Party (PNL) and the Democratic Alliance of Hungarians (UDMR/RMDSZ) formed a minority government coalition (highlighted in bold in the table below).

2000–2004

Elections to the Senate were held on 26 November 2000, in which the

(then abbreviated PDSR) won an overall majority. Then President of the Senate of Romania was former

Prime Minister A prime minister, premier or chief of cabinet is the head of the cabinet and the leader of the ministers in the executive branch of government, often in a parliamentary or semi-presidential system. Under those systems, a prime minister is ...

(between 1992 and 1996) Nicolae Văcăroiu, who was elected in December 2000. The allocation of seats was as follows:

1996–2000

1992–1996

1990–1992

Presidents of the Senate (1990–present)

Last election of the President of Senate: November 2021 The Standing Bureau of the Senate consists of the President of the Senate, four vice-presidents, four secretaries, and four quaestors. The President of the Standing Bureau also serves as the President of the Senate. The President is elected, by secret ballot, for the duration of the legislative period.Pagina oficiala a Senatului României
The political stance of the presidents of the upper house of the Parliament of Romania (after the development of a modern party system) is given by the following legend table: Ad interim (

acting Acting is an activity in which a story is told by means of its enactment by an actor or actress who adopts a character—in theatre, television, film, radio, or any other medium that makes use of the mimetic mode. Acting involves a bro ...

) officeholders are denoted by ''italics''. The Rule of the Senate states that at the first standing of the house, the meeting is headed by the eldest senator and helped by the youngest senator. Those bear the title of ''Interim President of the Senate'', and, as their term is very short (one or two days) are not listed. The interim officeholders listed have hold the office in different circumstances and for a longer time (i.e. for more than one or two days).

Notable senators

* Michael I of Romania (November 1939 to September 1940), before becoming

King King is the title given to a male monarch in a variety of contexts. The female equivalent is queen, which title is also given to the consort of a king. *In the context of prehistory, antiquity and contemporary indigenous peoples, the ...

and thereby acceding to the throne of Romania for the second time during his second and last short-lived reign.

Notes

References

External links

* * {{Authority control

Romania Romania ( ; ro, România ) is a country located at the crossroads of Central, Eastern, and Southeastern Europe. It borders Bulgaria to the south, Ukraine to the north, Hungary to the west, Serbia to the southwest, Moldova to the east, a ...

Senate A senate is a deliberative assembly, often the upper house or chamber of a bicameral legislature. The name comes from the ancient Roman Senate (Latin: ''Senatus''), so-called as an assembly of the senior (Latin: ''senex'' meaning "the e ...