A secret society is an

organization An organization or organisation (English in the Commonwealth of Nations, Commonwealth English; American and British English spelling differences#-ise, -ize (-isation, -ization), see spelling differences) is an legal entity, entity—such as ...

about which the activities, events, inner functioning, or membership are concealed. The

society A society () is a group of individuals involved in persistent social interaction or a large social group sharing the same spatial or social territory, typically subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations. ...

may or may not attempt to conceal its existence. The term usually excludes covert groups, such as

intelligence agencies An intelligence agency is a government agency responsible for the collection, analysis, and exploitation of information in support of law enforcement, national security, military, public safety, and foreign policy objectives. Means of inf ...

guerrilla warfare Guerrilla warfare is a form of unconventional warfare in which small groups of irregular military, such as rebels, partisans, paramilitary personnel or armed civilians, which may include recruited children, use ambushes, sabotage, terrori ...

insurgencies, that hide their activities and memberships but maintain a public presence. Secret societies may be community-based or associated with colleges and universities. These societies exist in countries around the world.

Definitions

The exact qualifications for labeling a group a secret society are disputed, but definitions generally rely on the degree to which the organization insists on secrecy and might involve the retention and transmission of secret knowledge, the denial of membership or knowledge of the group, the creation of personal bonds between members of the organization, and the use of secret rites or rituals. Anthropologically and

historically History is the systematic study of the past, focusing primarily on the human past. As an academic discipline, it analyses and interprets evidence to construct narratives about what happened and explain why it happened. Some theorists categ ...

, secret societies have been deeply interlinked with the concept of the Männerbund, the all-male "warrior-band" or "warrior-society" of pre-modern cultures (see H. Schurtz, ''Alterklassen und Männerbünde'', Berlin, 1902; A. Van Gennep, ''The Rites of Passage'', Chicago, 1960). A purported "

family tree A family tree, also called a genealogy or a pedigree chart, is a chart representing family relationships in a conventional tree structure. More detailed family trees, used in medicine and social work, are known as genograms. Representations of ...

of secret societies" has been proposed, although it may not be comprehensive.

Alan Axelrod Alan Axelrod (born 1952) is an American author of history, business and management books. As of October 2018, he had written more than 150 books. Axelrod resides in Atlanta, Georgia. Axelrod received his doctorate in English from the University ...

, author of the ''International Encyclopedia of Secret Societies and Fraternal Orders'', defines a secret society as an organization that: * is exclusive * claims to own special secrets * shows a strong inclination to favor its members. Historian Richard B. Spence of the

University of Idaho The University of Idaho (U of I, or UIdaho) is a public land-grant research university in Moscow, Idaho, United States. Established in 1889 and opened three years later, it was the state's sole university for 71 years, until 1963. The un ...

offered a similar three-pronged definition: * The group's existence is usually not kept secret, but some beliefs or practices are concealed from the public and require an oath of secrecy and loyalty to learn. * The group promises superior status or knowledge to members. * The group's membership is in some way restrictive, such as by race,

sex Sex is the biological trait that determines whether a sexually reproducing organism produces male or female gametes. During sexual reproduction, a male and a female gamete fuse to form a zygote, which develops into an offspring that inheri ...

religious affiliation Religious identity is a specific type of identity formation. Particularly, it is the sense of group membership to a religion and the importance of this group membership as it pertains to one's self-concept. Religious identity is not necessarily the ...

, or invitation only. Spence also proposes a sub-category of "

Elite In political and sociological theory, the elite (, from , to select or to sort out) are a small group of powerful or wealthy people who hold a disproportionate amount of wealth, privilege, political power, or skill in a group. Defined by the ...

Secret Societies" (composed of high-income or socially influential people) and notes that secret societies have a frequent if not universal tendency towards factionalism, infighting, and claiming origins older than can be reliably documented. Spence's definition includes groups traditionally thought of as secret societies (

Freemasons Freemasonry (sometimes spelled Free-Masonry) consists of fraternal groups that trace their origins to the medieval guilds of stonemasons. Freemasonry is the oldest secular fraternity in the world and among the oldest still-existing organizati ...

and

Rosicrucians Rosicrucianism () is a spirituality, spiritual and cultural movement that arose in early modern Europe in the early 17th century after the publication of several texts announcing to the world a new Western esotericism, esoteric order. Rosicruc ...

) and other groups not so traditionally classified such as certain organized crime cabals (

the Mafia "Mafia", as an informal or general term, is often used to describe criminal organizations that bear a strong similarity to the original Mafia in Sicily, to the Italian-American Mafia, or to other organized crime groups from Italy. The central ...

), religious groups (

Order of Assassins The Order of Assassins (; ) were a Nizari Isma'ilism, Nizari Isma'ili order that existed between 1090 and 1275 AD, founded by Hasan-i Sabbah, Hasan al-Sabbah. During that time, they lived in the mountains of Persia and the Levant, and held a ...

and

Thelema Thelema () is a Western esotericism, Western esoteric and occult social or spiritual philosophy and a new religious movement founded in the early 1900s by Aleister Crowley (1875–1947), an English writer, mystic, occultist, and ceremonial ma ...

) and political movements (

Bolshevik The Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, were a radical Faction (political), faction of the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) which split with the Mensheviks at the 2nd Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party, ...

s and

Black Dragon Society The , or the Amur River Society, was a prominent paramilitary, ultranationalist group in Japan. History The ''Kokuryūkai'' was founded in 1901 by martial artist Uchida Ryohei as a successor to his mentor Mitsuru Tōyama's '' Gen'yōsha''. ...

). Historian Jasper Ridley says that

Freemasonry Freemasonry (sometimes spelled Free-Masonry) consists of fraternal groups that trace their origins to the medieval guilds of stonemasons. Freemasonry is the oldest secular fraternity in the world and among the oldest still-existing organizati ...

is "the world's most powerful secret Society". The organization "

Opus Dei is an institution of the Catholic Church that was founded in Spain in 1928 by Josemaría Escrivá. Its stated mission is to help its lay and clerical members seek holiness in their everyday occupations and societies. Opus Dei is officially r ...

" (

Latin Latin ( or ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken by the Latins (Italic tribe), Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio), the lower Tiber area aroun ...

for "Work of God") is portrayed as a "secret society" of the

Catholic Church The Catholic Church (), also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the List of Christian denominations by number of members, largest Christian church, with 1.27 to 1.41 billion baptized Catholics Catholic Church by country, worldwid ...

. Critics such as the

Jesuit The Society of Jesus (; abbreviation: S.J. or SJ), also known as the Jesuit Order or the Jesuits ( ; ), is a religious order (Catholic), religious order of clerics regular of pontifical right for men in the Catholic Church headquartered in Rom ...

Wladimir Ledóchowski Wladimir is a masculine given name. It is an alternative spelling of the name Vladimir. Notable people with the name include: * Wladimir Aïtoff (1879–1963), French rugby player * Wladimir Balentien (born 1984), Dutch outfielder for the Seattle ...

sometimes refer to Opus Dei as a Catholic (or

Christian A Christian () is a person who follows or adheres to Christianity, a Monotheism, monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus in Christianity, Jesus Christ. Christians form the largest religious community in the wo ...

or "

white White is the lightest color and is achromatic (having no chroma). It is the color of objects such as snow, chalk, and milk, and is the opposite of black. White objects fully (or almost fully) reflect and scatter all the visible wa ...

") form of

. Other critics label Opus Dei as "Holy Mafia" or "Santa Mafia" The

National Christian Association National Christian Association (acronym, NCA; also known as The National Association of Christians Opposed to Secret Societies; 1868–1983) was an American organization opposed to Secret society, secret societies. Headquartered in Chicago, Illinoi ...

(1868–1983) is an example of an organization opposed to secret societies.

Realms

Politics

Because some secret societies have

political Politics () is the set of activities that are associated with decision-making, making decisions in social group, groups, or other forms of power (social and political), power relations among individuals, such as the distribution of Social sta ...

aims, they are illegal in several countries.

Italy Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a country in Southern Europe, Southern and Western Europe, Western Europe. It consists of Italian Peninsula, a peninsula that extends into the Mediterranean Sea, with the Alps on its northern land b ...

( Constitution of Italy, Section 2, Articles 13–28) and

Poland Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe. It extends from the Baltic Sea in the north to the Sudetes and Carpathian Mountains in the south, bordered by Lithuania and Russia to the northeast, Belarus and Ukrai ...

, for example, ban secret political parties and

political organizations A political organization is any organization that involves itself in the political process, including political parties, non-governmental organizations, and special interest advocacy groups. Political organizations are those engaged in politica ...

in their

constitutions A constitution is the aggregate of fundamental principles or established precedents that constitute the legal basis of a polity, organization or other type of entity, and commonly determines how that entity is to be governed. When these princ ...

Colleges and universities

Many

student societies A student society, student association, university society, student club, university club, or student organization is a society or an organization, operated by students at a university, college, or other educational institution, whose membership t ...

established on university campuses in the United States have been considered secret societies. Perhaps one of the most famous secret collegiate societies is

Skull and Bones Skull and Bones (also known as The Order, Order 322 or The Brotherhood of Death) is an undergraduate senior Secret society#Colleges and universities, secret student society at Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut. The oldest senior-class ...

Yale University Yale University is a Private university, private Ivy League research university in New Haven, Connecticut, United States. Founded in 1701, Yale is the List of Colonial Colleges, third-oldest institution of higher education in the United Stat ...

. The influence of undergraduate secret societies at colleges such as

Harvard College Harvard College is the undergraduate education, undergraduate college of Harvard University, a Private university, private Ivy League research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States. Part of the Harvard Faculty of Arts and Scienc ...

Cornell University Cornell University is a Private university, private Ivy League research university based in Ithaca, New York, United States. The university was co-founded by American philanthropist Ezra Cornell and historian and educator Andrew Dickson W ...

Florida State University Florida State University (FSU or Florida State) is a Public university, public research university in Tallahassee, Florida, United States. It is a senior member of the State University System of Florida and a preeminent university in the s ...

Dartmouth College Dartmouth College ( ) is a Private university, private Ivy League research university in Hanover, New Hampshire, United States. Established in 1769 by Eleazar Wheelock, Dartmouth is one of the nine colonial colleges chartered before the America ...

Emory University Emory University is a private university, private research university in Atlanta, Georgia, United States. It was founded in 1836 as Emory College by the Methodist Episcopal Church and named in honor of Methodist bishop John Emory. Its main campu ...

, the

University of Chicago The University of Chicago (UChicago, Chicago, or UChi) is a Private university, private research university in Chicago, Illinois, United States. Its main campus is in the Hyde Park, Chicago, Hyde Park neighborhood on Chicago's South Side, Chic ...

, the

University of Virginia The University of Virginia (UVA) is a Public university#United States, public research university in Charlottesville, Virginia, United States. It was founded in 1819 by Thomas Jefferson and contains his The Lawn, Academical Village, a World H ...

Georgetown University Georgetown University is a private university, private Jesuit research university in Washington, D.C., United States. Founded by Bishop John Carroll (archbishop of Baltimore), John Carroll in 1789, it is the oldest Catholic higher education, Ca ...

New York University New York University (NYU) is a private university, private research university in New York City, New York, United States. Chartered in 1831 by the New York State Legislature, NYU was founded in 1832 by Albert Gallatin as a Nondenominational ...

, and

Wellesley College Wellesley College is a Private university, private Women's colleges in the United States, historically women's Liberal arts colleges in the United States, liberal arts college in Wellesley, Massachusetts, United States. Founded in 1870 by Henr ...

has been publicly acknowledged, if

anonymously Anonymity describes situations where the acting person's identity is unknown. Anonymity may be created unintentionally through the loss of identifying information due to the passage of time or a destructive event, or intentionally if a person cho ...

and circumspectly, since the 19th century.

British universities Universities in the United Kingdom have generally been instituted by royal charter, papal bull, Act of Parliament, or an instrument of government under the Further and Higher Education Act 1992 or the Higher Education and Research Act 2017. Deg ...

have a long history of secret societies or quasi-secret clubs, such as The Pitt Club at

Cambridge University The University of Cambridge is a Public university, public collegiate university, collegiate research university in Cambridge, England. Founded in 1209, the University of Cambridge is the List of oldest universities in continuous operation, wo ...

Bullingdon Club The Bullingdon Club is a private all-male dining club for Oxford University students. It is known for its wealthy members, grand banquets, and bad behaviour, including vandalism of restaurants and students' rooms. The club selects its members ...

Oxford University The University of Oxford is a collegiate research university in Oxford, England. There is evidence of teaching as early as 1096, making it the oldest university in the English-speaking world and the second-oldest continuously operating u ...

, the

Kate Kennedy Club Kate may refer to: People and fictional characters * Kate (given name), a list of people and fictional characters with the given name or nickname * Gyula Káté (born 1982), Hungarian amateur boxer * Lauren Kate (born 1981), American author of ...

The Kensington Club The Kensington Club is a private all-male dining club for students of the University of St Andrews. History The details of the foundation of the Kensington Club are opaque. The Club’s own histories maintain that the Club was founded by Alexande ...

and the

Praetorian Club Praetorian is an adjective derived from the ancient Roman office of praetor. It may refer to: Government and military * Legatus (Praetorian legate), the title of a high military rank in the Roman Empire * Praetorian Guard, a special force of s ...

at the

University of St Andrews The University of St Andrews (, ; abbreviated as St And in post-nominals) is a public university in St Andrews, Scotland. It is the List of oldest universities in continuous operation, oldest of the four ancient universities of Scotland and, f ...

, and the 16' Club at St David's College. Another British secret society is the

Cambridge Apostles The Cambridge Apostles (also known as the Conversazione Society) is an intellectual society at the University of Cambridge founded in 1820 by George Tomlinson, a Cambridge student who became the first Bishop of Gibraltar. History Student ...

, founded as an essay and debating society in 1820. Not all British universities host solely academic secret societies; both

The Night Climbers of Cambridge ''The Night Climbers of Cambridge'' is a book, written under the pseudonym "Whipplesnaith", about nocturnal climbing on the colleges and town buildings of Cambridge, England, in the 1930s. The book remains popular among Cambridge University stud ...

and

The Night Climbers of Oxford The Night Climbers of Oxford is a secret society dedicated to nocturnally scaling college and town buildings in Oxford, England. The society is noted for its Activism, political activism, controversial acts, feats of climbing and parkour, as well a ...

require both brains and brawn. In

France France, officially the French Republic, is a country located primarily in Western Europe. Overseas France, Its overseas regions and territories include French Guiana in South America, Saint Pierre and Miquelon in the Atlantic Ocean#North Atlan ...

, Vandermonde is the secret society of the

Conservatoire National des Arts et Métiers The (; ; abbr. CNAM) is an AMBA-accredited French ''grande école'' and '' grand établissement''. It is a member of the '' Conférence des Grandes écoles'', which is an equivalent to the Ivy League schools in the United States, Oxbridge in th ...

. Notable examples in

Canada Canada is a country in North America. Its Provinces and territories of Canada, ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, making it the world's List of coun ...

include

Episkopon Episkopon (Greek alphabet, Greek: ΕΠΙΣΚΟΠΩΝ, "bishop") was a secret society at University of Trinity College, Trinity College in the University of Toronto. Its male branch formed in 1858, followed by the female branch in 1899. It was the ...

at the

University of Toronto The University of Toronto (UToronto or U of T) is a public university, public research university whose main campus is located on the grounds that surround Queen's Park (Toronto), Queen's Park in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. It was founded by ...

Trinity College Trinity College may refer to: Australia * Trinity Anglican College, an Anglican coeducational primary and secondary school in , New South Wales * Trinity Catholic College, Auburn, a coeducational school in the inner-western suburbs of Sydney, New ...

and the Society of Thoth at the

University of British Columbia The University of British Columbia (UBC) is a Public university, public research university with campuses near University of British Columbia Vancouver, Vancouver and University of British Columbia Okanagan, Kelowna, in British Columbia, Canada ...

. Secret societies are disallowed in a few colleges. The

Virginia Military Institute The Virginia Military Institute (VMI) is a public senior military college in Lexington, Virginia, United States. It was founded in 1839 as America's first state military college and is the oldest public senior military college in the U.S. In k ...

has rules that no

cadet A cadet is a student or trainee within various organisations, primarily in military contexts where individuals undergo training to become commissioned officers. However, several civilian organisations, including civil aviation groups, maritime ...

may join a secret society, and secret societies have been banned at

Oberlin College Oberlin College is a Private university, private Liberal arts colleges in the United States, liberal arts college and conservatory of music in Oberlin, Ohio, United States. Founded in 1833, it is the oldest Mixed-sex education, coeducational lib ...

from 1847 to the present, and at

Princeton University Princeton University is a private university, private Ivy League research university in Princeton, New Jersey, United States. Founded in 1746 in Elizabeth, New Jersey, Elizabeth as the College of New Jersey, Princeton is the List of Colonial ...

since the beginning of the 20th century.

Confraternities in Nigeria Confraternities in Nigeria are secretive student groups within Nigerian higher education that have been involved in violence and organized crime since the 1980s. The exact death toll of confraternity activities is unclear. One estimate in 2002 w ...

are secret-society-like student groups within

higher education Tertiary education (higher education, or post-secondary education) is the educational level following the completion of secondary education. The World Bank defines tertiary education as including universities, colleges, and vocational schools ...

, some of which have histories of violence and

organized crime Organized crime is a category of transnational organized crime, transnational, national, or local group of centralized enterprises run to engage in illegal activity, most commonly for profit. While organized crime is generally thought of as a f ...

. The exact death toll from confraternity activities is unclear. One estimate in 2002 was that 250 people had been killed in campus cult-related murders in the previous decade,"NIGERIA: Focus on the menace of student cults"
, '' IRIN'', 1 August 2002 while the Exam Ethics Project lobby group estimated that 115 students and teachers had been killed between 1993 and 2003."Cults of violence"
, ''

The Economist ''The Economist'' is a British newspaper published weekly in printed magazine format and daily on Electronic publishing, digital platforms. It publishes stories on topics that include economics, business, geopolitics, technology and culture. M ...

'', 31 July 2008 The Mandatory Monday Association is thought to operate out of a variety of

Australian Australian(s) may refer to: Australia * Australia, a country * Australians, citizens of the Commonwealth of Australia ** European Australians ** Anglo-Celtic Australians, Australians descended principally from British colonists ** Aboriginal Aus ...

universities including the

Australian Defence Force Academy The Australian Defence Force Academy (ADFA) is a tri-service military academy that provides military and Tertiary education in Australia, academic education for junior officers of the Australian Defence Force in the Royal Australian Navy (RAN) ...

. The Association has numerous chapters that meet only on Mondays to discuss business and carry out rituals. The only secret society abolished and then legalized is that of The

Philomaths The Philomaths, or Philomath Society ( or ''Towarzystwo Filomatów'', or ''Filomatų draugija''; from the Greek φιλομαθεῖς "lovers of knowledge"), was a secret student organization that existed from 1817 to 1823 at the Imperial U ...

, which is now a legitimate academic association founded on a strict selection of its members.

Internet

While their existence had been speculated for years,

Internet The Internet (or internet) is the Global network, global system of interconnected computer networks that uses the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to communicate between networks and devices. It is a internetworking, network of networks ...

-based secret societies first became known to the public in 2012 when

Cicada 3301 Cicada 3301 is the name given to eight sets of puzzles posted under the name "3301" online between 2012 and 2014. The first puzzle started on January 4, 2012, on 4chan and ran for nearly a month. A second round of puzzles began one year later on ...

began recruiting from the public via Internet-based puzzles. The goals of the society remain unknown, but it is believed to be involved in

cryptography Cryptography, or cryptology (from "hidden, secret"; and ''graphein'', "to write", or ''-logy, -logia'', "study", respectively), is the practice and study of techniques for secure communication in the presence of Adversary (cryptography), ...

Around the world

The following contemporary and historic secret societies formed in Africa, by country:

Africa

Cameroon

Ekpe Ekpe, also known as Mgbe/Egbo ( Ekoi language: ''leopard''; derived from the Efik term for the same), is a West African secret society in Nigeria and Cameroon flourishing chiefly among the Ejagham. It is also found among a number of other ethni ...

Ghana

* Simo

Guinea

Poro The Poro, or Purrah or Purroh, is a men's secret society in Sierra Leone, Liberia, Guinea, and the Ivory Coast, introduced by the Mane people (the Mandé peoples, Mande Elites leading large-scale migrations from the Mali Empire into the southern ...

Sande society Sande, also known as zadεgi, bundu, bundo and bondo, is a women's initiation society in Liberia, Sierra Leone, Guinea and the Ivory Coast. The Sande society initiates girls into adulthood by rituals including female genital mutilation. It is said ...

Ivory Coast

Liberia

* Crocodile Society *

Mali

* Simo

Nigeria

Nze na Ozo The Nze na Ozo society, otherwise known as the Agbalanze society, is the highest and most important spiritual, Odinani, religious and social grouping in the Igbo people, Igbo society of Southeast Nigeria. History Initiation into the aristocratic ...

* Ogboni *

Sierra Leone

* Crocodile Society *

Leopard Society Leopard Society, leopard men, and Anyoto were names used for one or more secret societies that operated in West and Central Africa approximately between 1890 and 1935. It was believed that members of the society could transform into leopards thro ...

* Simo

South Africa

Afrikaner Broederbond The Afrikaner Broederbond (AB) or simply the Broederbond was an exclusively Afrikaner Calvinist and male secret society in South Africa dedicated to the advancement of the Afrikaner people. It was founded by H. J. Klopper, H. W. van der Merw ...

Afrikanerbond The Afrikanerbond (''Afrikaner League''), established in 1994, is the successor to the Afrikaner Broederbond, formerly a South African secret society. Unlike its predecessor, membership is open to anyone over the age of 18 years who identifies w ...

Zimbabwe

Nyau Nyau (also: ''Nyao'' meaning ''mask'' or ''initiation'') is a secret society of the Chewa, an ethnic group of the Bantu peoples from Central and Southern Africa. The Nyau society consists of initiated members of the Chewa people, forming the cosm ...

Asia

China

Secret societies played a major role in Chinese affairs for centuries. They were a key aspect of the

Anti-Qing sentiment Anti-Qing sentiment () refers to a sentiment principally held in China against the rule of the Manchu people, Manchu-led Qing dynasty (1644–1912), which was criticized by opponents as being "barbaric". Already hated by the Han Chinese because o ...

s of the 20th century. After the collapse of the Qing Dynasty, they were tacitly supported by and actively collaborated with the Nationalist government. Having played prominent roles in history, they were targeted by the anti-secret society campaigns of the newly established government of the

People's Republic of China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. With population of China, a population exceeding 1.4 billion, it is the list of countries by population (United Nations), second-most populous country after ...

during the 1950s. Examples of Chinese secret societies include: * Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists *

Hai San Secret Society The Hai San Society (; Pha̍k-fa-sṳ: ''Hói-sân''), which had its origins in Southern China,Encyclopædia Britannica was a Penang-based Chinese secret society established around 1820 and in 1825 led by Low, Ah ChongTriad Societies: Western Ac ...

* Red Lanterns * Red Spear Society *

Tiandihui The Tiandihui, the Heaven and Earth Society, also called Hongmen (the Vast Family), is a Chinese fraternal organization and historically a secretive folk religious sect in the vein of the Ming loyalist White Lotus Sect, the Tiandihu ...

, Society of the Heaven and the Earth * Yellow Sand Society * White Lotus *

Heavenly Kingdom of Everlasting Satisfaction The Heavenly Kingdom of Everlasting Satisfaction refers to a secret society founded in 1990 in Song County, Henan Province, headed by Li Chengfu (1952–1993), that wanted to take over the world. History Establishment On January 27, 1990 (C ...

India

Secret societies in

India India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area; the List of countries by population (United Nations), most populous country since ...

include: *

Paramahansa Mandali Paramahansa Mandali was a secret socio-religious group, established in 1849, in Bombay and is closely related to Manav Dharma Sabha which was found in 1844 in Surat. It was started by Durgaram Mehtaji, Dadoba Pandurang and a group of his frien ...

* Abhinav Bharti

Japan

Secret societies in

Japan Japan is an island country in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean off the northeast coast of the Asia, Asian mainland, it is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan and extends from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea ...

include: *

Double Leaf Society The was a Japanese military secret society of the 1920s. The ''Futabakai'' was one of many ultranationalist secret societies in Japan which had arisen within the Japanese military, from the Meiji period through World War II. The ''Futabakai'' con ...

Gen'yōsha The was an influential Pan-Asianist group and secret society active in the Empire of Japan. Foundation as the Koyōsha Founded as the ''Koyōsha'' by Hiraoka Kotarō (1851–1906), a wealthy ex-samurai and mine-owner, with mining interests in Ma ...

* Green Dragon *

Sakurakai , was an ultranationalist secret society established by young officers within the Imperial Japanese Army in September 1930, with the goal of reorganizing the state along totalitarian militarist lines via a military coup d'état, if necessary. Its ...

Malaysia

Secret societies in

Malaysia Malaysia is a country in Southeast Asia. Featuring the Tanjung Piai, southernmost point of continental Eurasia, it is a federation, federal constitutional monarchy consisting of States and federal territories of Malaysia, 13 states and thre ...

include: *

Ang Soon Tong Ang Soon Tong () is a secret society based in Singapore and Malaysia. According to a former police officer, the society was active as early as the 1950s, mainly in the Sembawang area. In 1998, a 19-year-old youth was arrested for setting up a web ...

Ghee Hin Kongsi The Ghee Hin Kongsi () was a secret society in Singapore and Malaya, formed in 1820. Ghee Hin literally means "the rise of righteousness" in Chinese and was part of the Hongmen overseas network. The Ghee Hin often fought against the Hakka-domi ...

* Wah Kee

Philippines

Secret societies in the

Philippines The Philippines, officially the Republic of the Philippines, is an Archipelagic state, archipelagic country in Southeast Asia. Located in the western Pacific Ocean, it consists of List of islands of the Philippines, 7,641 islands, with a tot ...

include: *

La Liga Filipina La Liga Filipina () was a secret society. It was founded by José Rizal in the house of Doroteo Ongjunco at Ilaya Street, Tondo, Manila on July 3, 1892.In 1892, prior to its birth, Rizal alighted at the Old Malolos station to campaign in the ...

Katipunan The Katipunan (), officially known as the (; ) and abbreviated as the KKK, was a revolutionary organization founded in 1892 by a group of Filipino nationalists Deodato Arellano, Andrés Bonifacio, Valentin Diaz, Ladislao Diwa, José Dizon, an ...

Order of Free Gardeners The Order of Free Gardeners is a fraternal society that was founded in Scotland in the middle of the 17th century and later spread to England and Ireland. Like numerous other friendly societies of the time, its principal aim was the sharing of ...

Singapore

Salakau Salakau ( zh, s=三六九, poj=Saⁿ-la̍k-káu), which means 369 in Hokkien, also known as "Sah Lak Kau", is a street gang or secret society based in Singapore. The numbers 3, 6 and 9 add up to 18, which was the name of an older gang; the nu ...

* Wah Kee *

Freemasonary Freemasonry (sometimes spelled Free-Masonry) consists of fraternal groups that trace their origins to the medieval guilds of stonemasons. Freemasonry is the oldest secular fraternity in the world and among the oldest still-existing organizati ...

Australia

Secret societies in Australia include: *

Odd Fellows Odd Fellows (or Oddfellows when referencing the Grand United Order of Oddfellows or some British-based fraternities; also Odd Fellowship or Oddfellowship) is an international fraternity consisting of lodges first documented in 1730 in 18th-cen ...

Royal Antediluvian Order of Buffaloes The Royal Antediluvian Order of Buffaloes (RAOB) is one of the largest fraternal movements in the United Kingdom, The order started in 1822 and has since spread throughout the former British Empire and elsewhere in the world. It is known as the ...

Tong Tong may refer to: Chinese *Tang dynasty, a dynasty in Chinese history when transliterated from Cantonese *Tong (organization), a type of social organization found in Chinese immigrant communities *''tong'', pronunciation of several Chinese char ...

Europe

Several secret societies existing across Europe, including: *

Ancient Order of Freesmiths The Ancient Order of Freesmiths, or ''Alte Orden der Freischmiede'' is a secret society originating in Europe during the Middle Ages. Since around 1864 the order has established an international membership but it does not publicly disclose the numb ...

(''Freischmiede'') *

Templars of Honor and Temperance The Templars of Honor and Temperance, also known as the Tempel Riddare Orden, is a fraternal order that was founded in the United States in 1845 to promote the values of the temperance movement. Founded as the Marshall Temperance Fraternity, the Te ...

Rosicrucianism Rosicrucianism () is a spiritual and cultural movement that arose in early modern Europe in the early 17th century after the publication of several texts announcing to the world a new esoteric order. Rosicrucianism is symbolized by the Rose ...

Other organizations are listed by country.

Albania

Black Society for Salvation The Black Society for Salvation () was a secret Albanian nationalist society established in 1909. Its main task was to organize uprisings in southern Albania and Macedonia struggling for the unification of the four Ottoman vilayets with the substa ...

Secret Committee for the Liberation of Albania The Secret Committee for the Liberation of Albania () was a secret committee founded in Manastir (modern day Bitola) by Bajo Topulli and other Albanian nationalists in November 1905 to fight for the secession of Albania from the Ottoman Empire. This ...

Bulgaria

Bulgarian Secret Central Revolutionary Committee Bulgarian Secret Central Revolutionary Committee (BSCRC) was a Bulgarian revolutionary organization founded in Plovdiv, then in Eastern Rumelia on February 10, 1885. The original purpose of the committee was to gain autonomy for the region of Mac ...

* Bulgarian Secret Revolutionary Brotherhood *

Macedonian Youth Secret Revolutionary Organization The Macedonian Youth Secret Revolutionary Organization (, ; MMTRO/MYSRO) was a secret pro-Bulgarian youth organization established by the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (IMRO), active in Macedonia between 1922 and the 1940s. MMTRO ...

Finland

* Aurora Society *

Ordo Templi Orientis Ordo Templi Orientis (O.T.O.; ) is an occult secret society and hermetic magical organization founded at the beginning of the 20th century. The origins of O.T.O. can be traced back to the German-speaking occultists Carl Kellner, Theodor Reuss, ...

Valhallaorden Walhalla-orden was a secret society founded in the early part of 1783 in the Sveaborg (today, in Finnish: Suomenlinna) fortress outside Helsinki, Finland by Johan Anders Jägerhorn along with Gustaf Adolf Reuterholm. It is thought to have been in ...

France

Association of the Polish Youth "Zet" The Związek Młodzieży Polskiej "Zet" ("Union or Association of the Polish Youth "Zet"", abbreviated ''ZMP'' or more commonly ''Zet'') was a clandestine organization of Polish students at universities of the three partitioning powers (Russia, G ...

Bourbaki group Bourbaki(s) may refer to : Persons and science * Charles-Denis Bourbaki (1816–1897), French general, son of Constantin Denis Bourbaki * Colonel Constantin Denis Bourbaki (1787–1827), officer in the Greek War of Independence and serving in t ...

La Cagoule (, "The Cowl"; founded in 1936) was a French fascist-leaning and anti-communist militant group. It opposed the left-wing Popular Front (in office, June 1936 to 1938) and used violence to promote its activities in the final years of the Thi ...

Carbonari The Carbonari () was an informal network of Secret society, secret revolutionary societies active in Italy from about 1800 to 1831. The Carbonari may have further influenced other revolutionary groups in France, Portugal, Spain, Brazil, Urugua ...

Compagnons du Devoir The Compagnons du Devoir (), full name Compagnons du Devoir et du Tour de France (), is a French organization of craftsmen and artisans dating from the Middle Ages. Their traditional, technical education includes taking a tour, the ''Tour de Franc ...

Company of the Blessed Sacrament The Company of the Blessed Sacrament (), also sometimes referred to as the Company of the Most Blessed Sacrament, was a French Catholic secret society which included among its members many Catholic notables of the 17th century. It was responsible f ...

* Ellinoglosso Xenodocheio *

Hiéron du Val d'Or The (English: "Sanctuary of the Golden Valley") was a Catholic esoteric secret society in France, which existed from 1873 until 1926. It was founded by a Jesuit Victor Drevon and the half-Basque, half-Russian Alexis de Sarachaga. It was allied ...

Order of the Solar Temple The Order of the Solar Temple (, OTS), or simply the Solar Temple, was a new religious movement and secret society, often described as a cult, notorious for the mass deaths of many of its members in several mass murders and suicides throughout ...

Priory of Sion The ''Prieuré de Sion'' (), translated as Priory of Sion, was a fraternal organisation founded in France and dissolved in 1956 by hoaxer Pierre Plantard in his failed attempt to create a prestigious neo-chivalric order. In the 1960s, Plantar ...

Society of the Rights of Man The Society of the Rights of Man (, SDH) was a French republican association with Jacobin roots, formed during the July Revolution in 1830, replacing another republican association, the Society of the Friends of the People (France). It played a m ...

Germany

Germanenorden The Germanenorden (Germanic or Teutonic Order) was an occultist and '' völkisch'' secret society in early 20th-century Germany. History The Germanenorden was founded in Berlin in 1912 by Theodor Fritsch and several prominent German occultists ...

Illuminati The Illuminati (; plural of Latin ''illuminatus'', 'enlightened') is a name given to several groups, both real and fictitious. Historically, the name usually refers to the Bavarian Illuminati, an Enlightenment-era secret society founded on 1 ...

Order of the New Templars The Order of the New Templars – ''Ordo Novi Templi'' was a proto-fascist secret society in Germany founded by Jörg Lanz von Liebenfels (the code name of Fascist agitator Adolf Joseph Lanz) in 1900. Lanz used this order to spread his ideas, ...

Schnez-Truppe The Schnez-Truppe or Schnez Organisation was an illegal clandestine paramilitary organisation formed in West Germany in 1949 by veterans of the ''Wehrmacht'' and ''Waffen-SS'' under the leadership of Albert Schnez. The paramilitary was intended t ...

Thule Society The Thule Society (; ), originally the ('Study Group for Germanic Antiquity'), was a German occultist and group founded in Munich shortly after World War I, named after a mythical northern country in Greek legend. The society is notable chie ...

* Tugendbund *

United Ancient Order of Druids The United Ancient Order of Druids (UAOD) is a fraternal organisation founded in England, in 1833 after a schism with the Ancient Order of Druids. Its motto is ''United to assist''. History The creation in 1833 of the United Ancient Order of Dr ...

Greece

Epsilon Team The Epsilon Team () is an alleged secret society that appears in modern Greek folklore, conspiracy theories and ufology. The team was first described in a 1977 book, and supposedly consists of prominent Greek people who possess secret knowledge o ...

Ethniki Etaireia The Ethniki Etaireia () was a secret Greek nationalism, Greek nationalistic organization created in November 1894, by a number of young nationalist officers, advocates of the ''Megali Idea''. Its aim was to revive the morale of the country and prep ...

Ireland

Defenders Defender(s) or The Defender(s) may refer to: * Defense (military) * Defense (sports) ** Defender (association football) Arts and entertainment Film, television, and theatre Film * ''The Defender'' (1989 film), a Canadian documentary * ''The D ...

Hellfire Club Hellfire Club was a term used to describe several exclusive Club (organization), clubs for high-society Rake (character), rakes established in Great Britain and Ireland in the 18th Century. The name most commonly refers to Francis Dashwood, 11t ...

Irish Republican Brotherhood The Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB; ) was a secret oath-bound fraternal organisation dedicated to the establishment of an "independent democratic republic" in Ireland between 1858 and 1924.McGee, p. 15. Its counterpart in the United States ...

Molly Maguires The Molly Maguires was an Irish people, Irish 19th-century secret society active in Ireland, Liverpool, and parts of the eastern United States, best known for their activism among Irish-American and Irish diaspora, Irish immigrant coal miners i ...

* Royal Arch Purple *

Whiteboys The Whiteboys () were a secret Irish agrarian organisation in 18th-century Ireland which defended tenant-farmer land-rights for subsistence farming. Their name derives from the white smocks that members wore in their nighttime raids. Becaus ...

Italy

Fascio Operaio The Fascio Operaio was a clandestine association of free thinkers founded in the Tre Zucchette tavern of Bologna on 27 November 1871 by a group of Garibaldian veterans of the French campaign led by Erminio Pescatori. The purpose of the association ...

* Knights of the Apocalypse *

Propaganda Due (; P2) was a Masonic lodge, founded in 1877, within the tradition of Continental Freemasonry and under the authority of Grand Orient of Italy. Its Masonic charter was withdrawn in 1976, and it was transformed by Worshipful Master Licio Gell ...

Sicilian Mafia The Sicilian Mafia or Cosa Nostra (, ; "our thing"), also referred to as simply Mafia, is a secret society, criminal society and criminal organization originating on the island of Sicily and dates back to the mid-19th century. Emerging as a form of ...

Poland

Zarzewie Organisation of Independent Youth Zarzewie was a clandestine Polish youth organization, formed in May 1909 in Lemberg, Austrian Galicia. Based on Association of the Polish Youth "Zet", its objective was the restoration of independent Poland. As par ...

Portugal

Carbonária The Carbonária was originally an anti-clerical, revolutionary, conspiratorial society, originally established in Portugal in 1822 and soon disbanded. It was allied with the Italian Carbonari. A new organization of the same name and claiming to be ...

Russia

* Lyubomudry *

Petrashevsky Circle The Petrashevsky Circle was a Russian literary discussion group of progressive-minded intellectuals in St. Petersburg in the 1840s. It was organized by Mikhail Petrashevsky, a follower of the French utopian socialist Charles Fourier. Among the me ...

Secret Macedonian-Adrianople Circle The Secret Macedonian-Adrianople Circle was founded in St. Petersburg in 1900. Members of it were Bulgarian students in the Russian Empire. Its purpose, according to its founding protocol, was: "To support the Macedonian cause materially and moral ...

Southern Society of the Decembrists The Southern Society of the Decembrists () was one of two, along with the Northern Society, main secret revolutionary organizations of the Decembrists. Created in March 1821 on the basis of the Tulchin Council of the Union of Prosperity. The ...

Union of Prosperity The Union of Prosperity () or Union of Welfare was a larger secret society of the Decembrists, established in early 1818 on the basis of the dissolved Union of Salvation and contained the literary society, the Green Lamp. Members The members of ...

Union of Salvation The Union of Salvation (), formed in 1816, also known as the Society of True and Loyal Sons of the Fatherland () since 1817, was the first secret political society of the Decembrists. In 1816, at the initiative of , a group of young officers of ...

Serbia

Black Hand Black Hand or The Black Hand may refer to: Extortionists and underground groups * Black Hand (), 1919–1924 Mexican-American raiders of the Tierra Amarilla Land Grant * Black Hand (anarchism) (), a presumed secret, anarchist organization based ...

Main Board for Serb Liberation Main may refer to: Geography *Main River (disambiguation), multiple rivers with the same name *Ma'in, an ancient kingdom in modern-day Yemen *Main, Iran, a village in Fars Province *Spanish Main, the Caribbean coasts of mainland Spanish territo ...

* Serbian secret organization in eastern Bosnia * White Hand

Spain

* The Disinherited *

* Mano Negra (Black Hand) *

Society of the Exterminating Angel The Society of the Exterminating Angel was a possibly apocryphal Catholic group in Spain that was created to kill Spanish liberals, founded in 1821. It was revived in 1834 under the presidency of the Bishop of Osma.Gerald Brenan, ''The Spanish La ...

Spanish Military Union Unión Militar Española (Spanish Military Union) was a pro-fascist secret society of officers of the Spanish Republican Armed Forces involved in a conspiracy to bring about the restoration of the monarchy during the 1930s. The majority of members o ...

United Kingdom

A∴A∴ The A∴A∴ ( ) is a magical organization established in 1907 by Aleister Crowley, a Western esotericist. Its members are dedicated to the advancement of humanity by perfection of the individual on every plane through a graded series of univ ...

* Calves' Head Club *

Confederacy A confederation (also known as a confederacy or league) is a political union of sovereign states united for purposes of common action. Usually created by a treaty, confederations of states tend to be established for dealing with critical issu ...

Gormogons The Ancient Noble Order of the Gormogons was a short-lived 18th century secret society formed by expelled Freemason Philip Wharton, 1st Duke of Wharton, Philip Wharton. It left no records or accomplishments to indicate its true goal and purpose. Fr ...

5 Hertford Street 5 Hertford Street (5HS) is a private members' club in Mayfair, London, which was described in a 2017 Observer article as London's most secretive club. It has annual membership costs of £3,500 and is owned by the English businessman Robin Birley ...

Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn The Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn (), more commonly the Golden Dawn (), was a secret society devoted to the study and practice of occult Hermeticism and metaphysics during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Known as a magical order, ...

The Horseman's Word The Horseman's Word, also known as the Society of Horsemen, is a fraternal secret society operating in Great Britain, Britain for those who work with horses. Established in north-eastern Scotland during the early nineteenth century, in ensuing deca ...

* National Action *

Nordic League The Nordic League (NL) was a far-right organisation in the United Kingdom from 1935 to 1939 that sought to serve as a co-ordinating body for the various extremist movements whilst also seeking to promote Nazism. The League was a private organisat ...

* Odin Brotherhood *

Order of Chaeronea The Order of Chaeronea was a secret society for the cultivation of a homosexual moral, ethical, cultural, and spiritual ethos. Founded by George Cecil Ives in 1897, based on his belief that homosexuals would not be accepted openly in society, the ...

Order of Druids Order, ORDER or Orders may refer to: * A socio-political or established or existing order, e.g. World order, Ancien Regime, Pax Britannica * Categorization, the process in which ideas and objects are recognized, differentiated, and understood * ...

The 16' Club The 16' Club, commonly referred to as The Sixteens, the College Sixteen or simply 16,Secret Societies: From the Ancient and Arcane to the Modern and Clandestine, by David V. Barrett, is a private dining club for male members of University of ...

The School of Night The School of Night is a modern name for a group of men centred on Sir Walter Raleigh that was once referred to in 1592 as the "School of Atheism". The group supposedly included poets and scientists Christopher Marlowe, George Chapman, Matthew R ...

Scotch Cattle Scotch Cattle was the name taken by bands of coal miners in 19th century South Wales, analogous to the Molly Maguires in Pennsylvania, who, in disguise, would visit the homes of other local miners who were working during a strike or cooperating wi ...

Sealed Knot The Sealed Knot was a secret Royalist association which plotted for the Restoration of the monarchy during the English Interregnum. The group was commissioned by King Charles II between November 1653 and February 1654 from his exile in Paris f ...

North America

Canada

Secret societies in Canada that are non-collegiate include: *

Fenian The word ''Fenian'' () served as an umbrella term for the Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB) and their affiliate in the United States, the Fenian Brotherhood. They were secret political organisations in the late 19th and early 20th centuries ...

s *

Hunters' Lodges The Hunters' Lodge was the last of a series of secret organizations formed in 1838 in the United States during the Rebellions in Upper and Lower Canada. The organization arose in Vermont among Lower Canadian refugees (the eastern division or F ...

Independent Order of Odd Fellows The Independent Order of Odd Fellows (IOOF) is a non-political, non-sectarian international fraternal order of Odd Fellowship. It was founded in 1819 by Thomas Wildey in Baltimore, Maryland, United States. Evolving from the Odd Fellows, Order ...

Ku Klux Klan The Ku Klux Klan (), commonly shortened to KKK or Klan, is an American Protestant-led Christian terrorism, Christian extremist, white supremacist, Right-wing terrorism, far-right hate group. It was founded in 1865 during Reconstruction era, ...

* *

* P.E.O. Sisterhood *

Cuba

Abakuá Abakuá, also sometimes known as Ñañiguismo, is a Cuban initiatory religious fraternity founded in 1836. The society is open only to men and those initiated take oaths to not reveal the secret teachings and practices of the order. Members are ...

United States

Secret societies in the United States that are non-collegiate include: *

* American Protestant Association *

Brotherhood of American Yeomen Brotherhood of American Yeomen (acronym, BAY; originally, Farmer's Mutual), was a coeducational North American secret societies, secret List of general fraternities, fraternal benefit society organized in 1897. In 1932, the organization was change ...

s *

Knights of Columbus The Knights of Columbus (K of C) is a global Catholic Church, Catholic Fraternal and service organizations, fraternal service order founded by Michael J. McGivney, Blessed Michael J. McGivney. Membership is limited to practicing Catholic men. ...

Knights of the Golden Circle The Knights of the Golden Circle (KGC) was a secret society founded in 1854 by American George W. L. Bickley, the objective of which was to create a new country known as the Golden Circle (), where slavery would be legal. The country would have ...

* Knights of Liberty *

Knights of Reciprocity Knights of Reciprocity (acronym, KofR; est. 1890) was an American semi-political system, political secret societies, secret society. Largely inspired by opposition to the Farmers' Alliance, it was organized in Garden City, Kansas, on November 26, ...

Order of the Star Spangled Banner The Order of the Star Spangled Banner (OSSB) was an oath-bound secret society in New York City. It was created in 1849 by Charles B. Allen to protest the rise of Irish and German Catholic immigration into the United States. To join the Orde ...

* The Order of the Third Bird *

Mexico

Feminine Brigades of St. Joan of Arc The Feminine Brigades of Saint Joan of Arc (Spanish language, Spanish: ''Las Brigadas Femeninas de Santa Juana de Arco'') also known as Guerrilleras de Cristo (women-soldiers of Christ) was a secret military society for women founded on June 21, 19 ...

El Yunque (organization) The ''Organización Nacional del Yunque'' (English: National Organization of the Anvil) or simply ''El Yunque'' (in English: The Anvil) is the name of an alleged conservative Mexican secret society whose existence was first claimed by journalist ...

South America

Brazil

Shindo Renmei was a terrorist organization composed of Japanese immigrants. It was active in the state of São Paulo, Brazil during the 1940s. Refusing to believe the news of Japan's surrender at the end of World War II, some of its most fanatic members used ...

* Hy-Bráz Society

Opposition

The

strongly opposed secret societies, especially the Freemasons. It did relent somewhat in the United States and allowed membership in

labour unions A trade union (British English) or labor union (American English), often simply referred to as a union, is an organization of workers whose purpose is to maintain or improve the conditions of their employment, such as attaining better wages ...

and the

, but not the Masons. Some

Christian denomination A Christian denomination is a distinct Religion, religious body within Christianity that comprises all Church (congregation), church congregations of the same kind, identifiable by traits such as a name, particular history, organization, leadersh ...

s continue to forbid their members from joining secret societies in the 21st century, such as the

Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection The Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection (AWMC) is a Methodist denomination within the conservative holiness movement. It is primarily based in the United States, with missions in Peru, Ghana, and Haiti. The Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Conne ...

and

Seventh-day Adventists The Seventh-day Adventist Church (SDA) is an Adventist Protestant Christian denomination which is distinguished by its observance of Saturday, the seventh day of the week in the Christian (Gregorian) and the Hebrew calendar, as the Sabba ...

.Ellen G. White, ''"Selected Messages Book 2"'', Chapter 13. (1958)

References

External links

Secret Societies: a very short history
– Documents of

Jesuits The Society of Jesus (; abbreviation: S.J. or SJ), also known as the Jesuit Order or the Jesuits ( ; ), is a religious order (Catholic), religious order of clerics regular of pontifical right for men in the Catholic Church headquartered in Rom ...

Burschenschaften A Burschenschaft (; sometimes abbreviated in the German ''Burschenschaft'' jargon; plural: ) is one of the traditional (student associations) of Germany, Austria, and Chile (the latter due to German cultural influence). Burschenschaften were fo ...

and other organizations * Stevens
The cyclopædia of fraternities (2nd ed.)
A dated review of the subject. {{Authority control Clandestine groups Clubs and societies Conspiracies

Definitions

Realms

Politics

Colleges and universities

Internet

Around the world

Africa

Cameroon

Ghana

Guinea

Ivory Coast

Liberia

Mali

Nigeria

Sierra Leone

South Africa

Zimbabwe

Asia

China

India

Japan

Malaysia

Philippines

Singapore

Australia

Europe

Albania

Bulgaria

Finland

France

Germany

Greece

Ireland

Italy

Poland

Portugal

Russia

Serbia

Spain

United Kingdom

North America

Canada

Cuba

United States

Mexico

South America

Brazil

Opposition

See also

References

Further reading

External links