The Second Phase Offensive (25 November – 24 December 1950) or Second Phase Campaign () of the

Korean War The Korean War (25 June 1950 – 27 July 1953) was an armed conflict on the Korean Peninsula fought between North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea; DPRK) and South Korea (Republic of Korea; ROK) and their allies. North Korea was s ...

was an offensive by the Chinese

People's Volunteer Army The People's Volunteer Army (PVA), officially the Chinese People's Volunteers (CPV), was the armed expeditionary forces China in the Korean War, deployed by the History of the People's Republic of China (1949–1976), People's Republic of Chi ...

(PVA) against

United Nations Command United Nations Command (UNC or UN Command) is the multinational military force established to support the South Korea, Republic of Korea (South Korea) during and after the Korean War. It was the first attempt at collective security by the U ...

(U.S./UN) forces, most of which were soldiers of

South Korea South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea (ROK), is a country in East Asia. It constitutes the southern half of the Korea, Korean Peninsula and borders North Korea along the Korean Demilitarized Zone, with the Yellow Sea to the west and t ...

and the

United States The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...

. The two major engagements of the campaign were the Battle of the Ch'ongch'on River in the western part of North Korea and the

Battle of Chosin Reservoir The Battle of Chosin Reservoir, also known as the Chosin Reservoir Campaign or the Battle of Lake Changjin (), was an important battle in the Korean War. The name "Chosin" is derived from the Japanese pronunciation "''Chōshin'', instead of th ...

in the eastern part of North Korea. Casualties were heavy on both sides. The battles were fought in temperatures as low as and casualties from

frostbite Frostbite is a skin injury that occurs when someone is exposed to extremely low temperatures, causing the freezing of the skin or other tissues, commonly affecting the fingers, toes, nose, ears, cheeks and chin areas. Most often, frostbite occ ...

may have exceeded those from battle wounds. On 23 December 1950 Lieutenant General

Walton Walker Walton Harris Walker (3 December 1889 – 23 December 1950) was a United States Army four-star rank, four-star General (United States), general who served with distinction in World War I, World War II, and the Korean War, where he commanded the ...

died in a vehicle accident in

Seoul Seoul, officially Seoul Special Metropolitan City, is the capital city, capital and largest city of South Korea. The broader Seoul Metropolitan Area, encompassing Seoul, Gyeonggi Province and Incheon, emerged as the world's List of cities b ...

while in command of the U.S. 8th Army. He was the highest ranked U.S. military service member killed in the Korean War. U.S. intelligence and air reconnaissance failed to detect the large numbers of Chinese soldiers present in North Korea. Thus, the UN units, the

Eighth United States Army The Eighth Army is a U.S. field army which commands all United States Army forces in South Korea. It is headquartered at the Camp Humphreys in the Anjeong-ri of Pyeongtaek, Pyeongtaek, South Korea.X Corps on the east, kicked off the "Home-by-Christmas" offensive on 24 November with "unwarranted confidence...believing that they comfortably outnumbered enemy forces." The Chinese attacks came as a surprise. The Home-by-Christmas offensive, with the objective of conquering all of North Korea and ending the war, was quickly abandoned in light of the massive Chinese assault. The Second Phase Offensive forced all UN forces to go on the defensive and retreat. China had recaptured nearly all of North Korea by the end of the offensive.

Background

In late 1950, the

United Nations The United Nations (UN) is the Earth, global intergovernmental organization established by the signing of the Charter of the United Nations, UN Charter on 26 June 1945 with the stated purpose of maintaining international peace and internationa ...

military forces, led by the United States, advanced rapidly north through South Korea with only light resistance from the retreating North Korean

Korean People's Army The Korean People's Army (KPA; ) encompasses the combined military forces of North Korea and the armed wing of the Workers' Party of Korea (WPK). The KPA consists of five branches: the Korean People's Army Ground Force, Ground Force, the Ko ...

(KPA). On 1 October 1950, UN Commander General

Douglas MacArthur Douglas MacArthur (26 January 18805 April 1964) was an American general who served as a top commander during World War II and the Korean War, achieving the rank of General of the Army (United States), General of the Army. He served with dis ...

called on North Korea to surrender. There was no response. On 3 October MacArthur announced that UN forces had crossed the border into North Korea. The UN forces proceeded northward toward the

Yalu River The Yalu River () or Amnok River () is a river on the border between China and North Korea. Together with the Tumen River to its east, and a small portion of Paektu Mountain, the Yalu forms the border between China and North Korea. Its valle ...

, the boundary between North Korea and China. On 24 November a final UN offensive, informally called the "Home-by-Christmas Offensive", to complete the conquest of North Korea began. Most of North Korea was then occupied by UN forces, and the Korean War seemed to be almost over. The UN soldiers and their leaders were optimistic that the Korean War could be concluded by

Christmas Christmas is an annual festival commemorating Nativity of Jesus, the birth of Jesus Christ, observed primarily on December 25 as a Religion, religious and Culture, cultural celebration among billions of people Observance of Christmas by coun ...

, 25 December. Despite some indications that substantial numbers of Chinese soldiers were in North Korea, MacArthur played down both the estimates of numbers of Chinese soldiers in North Korea and the possibility of large-scale Chinese intervention. A U.S. military intelligence report dated 25 November estimated that the total number of Chinese soldiers in North Korea was only 70,000. That same date the PVA launched the Second Phase Offensive with 300,000 men or more. In early October 1950, after reports that UN forces were crossing the border into North Korea, Chinese leader

Mao Zedong Mao Zedong pronounced ; traditionally Romanization of Chinese, romanised as Mao Tse-tung. (26December 18939September 1976) was a Chinese politician, revolutionary, and political theorist who founded the People's Republic of China (PRC) in ...

notified

Soviet Union The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...

leader

Joseph Stalin Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin (born Dzhugashvili; 5 March 1953) was a Soviet politician and revolutionary who led the Soviet Union from 1924 until Death and state funeral of Joseph Stalin, his death in 1953. He held power as General Secret ...

that "We have decided to send troops into Korea...to fight the United States...this is necessary because, should the Americans occupy the whole of Korea, the Korean revolutionary force would be completely destroyed and the American invaders would become more rampant." Mao said that China would infiltrate 12 infantry divisions into North Korea and that another 24 infantry divisions were present in northern China (

Manchuria Manchuria is a historical region in northeast Asia encompassing the entirety of present-day northeast China and parts of the modern-day Russian Far East south of the Uda (Khabarovsk Krai), Uda River and the Tukuringra-Dzhagdy Ranges. The exact ...

) for deployment if necessary. A Chinese infantry division when fully staffed numbered about 10,000 men. Mao also appealed for Soviet military assistance for artillery and air power. Mao said that to defeat the UN forces, China would have to have manpower "four times larger than the enemy's."

Infiltration and opening shots

On 19 October, tens of thousands of Chinese soldiers began crossing the Yalu River, the border between China and North Korea, at night to avoid detection by UN reconnaissance aircraft. Their entry was undetected. On 25 October the first shots fired between the PVA and UN forces were at the Battle of Onjong, about south of the Yalu. This battle heralded the opening of what China called the First Phase Offensive which would last until 6 November.

Peng Dehuai Peng Dehuai (October 24, 1898November 29, 1974; also spelled as Peng Teh-Huai) was a Chinese general and politician who was the Minister of National Defense (China), Minister of National Defense from 1954 to 1959. Peng was born into a poor ...

, the Chinese commander, ended the First Phase Offensive because his soldiers were tired and lacked food and munitions. He also said the Chinese soldiers were fearful of UN air raids and that the cold winter weather would make it "increasingly difficult to preserve the strength of our troops who have to sleep outside and sometimes in the snow." Nevertheless, Peng reported that the results of the First Phase Offensive were satisfactory.

Chinese appraisal of UN forces

After the encounter between PVA and UN forces in the First Phase Offensive, Peng evaluated his opponent. He said that the American artillery and air power were well coordinated and "a great hazard." The American logistics system was "great" and that American infantry had more firepower and range than did the Chinese. He was not complimentary about the American infantryman. "They depend on their planes, tanks, and artillery...they are afraid of our firepower...they specialize in day fighting. They are not familiar with night fighting or hand to hand combat...They are afraid when their rear is cut off. When transportation comes to a standstill, the infantry loses the will to fight." Peng would later say, however, that U.S. soldiers "were good at fighting." The Chinese commanders believed that the UN's dependence upon technology could be detrimental to them. The UN forces traveled by roads, they needed a constant supply of artillery supplies; and the infantry operated only during daylight hours and depended upon air cover.

Chinese strategy and tactics

Peng's strategy for the Second Phase Offensive was to lure the UN forces into advancing northward into a trap with Chinese forces on all sides of them. That strategy would shorten the supply lines of the logistics-challenged Chinese forces and disperse the UN advancing forces. The Chinese would be familiar with the territory and the UN transportation and supply lifelines would be longer and more vulnerable to attack by guerrillas. Peng reasoned that if the PVA forces could destroy two or three UN divisions, the character of the war would change to the benefit of China and North Korea. The Chinese strategy was dictated in part by their lack of air power, armor, and heavy artillery. After the First Phase Offensive ended on 6 November, Peng ordered the PVA to retreat, feigning weakness and intimidation. However, both the eastern and western branches of the UN forces advanced only slowly. To induce over-confidence by the UN forces, on 18 November Peng released 103

prisoners of war A prisoner of war (POW) is a person held captive by a belligerent power during or immediately after an armed conflict. The earliest recorded usage of the phrase "prisoner of war" dates back to 1610. Belligerents hold prisoners of war for a ...

(POW) (including 30 Americans) whom he had ensured would take back to the UN the false information that the PVA were suffering from shortages of food and ammunition and withdrawing to China. These ruses seemed to work as the UN advance sped up. Peng outlined what would be the Chinese tactics in the Second Phase Offensive. "As a main objective, one of the units must fight its way rapidly around the enemy and cut off their rear....Route of attack must avoid highways and flat terrain in order to keep tanks and artillery from hindering the attack operations...Night warfare in mountainous terrain must have a definite plan and liaison between platoon commands." To get to the battlefield, PVA soldiers walked from Manchuria to North Korea, evading detection by UN reconnaissance aircraft. One of their armies of three divisions walked in 16 to 19 days, an average of up to daily through mountainous terrain and on poor roads and trails. Marching was at night to avoid aerial surveillance. During the day, the soldiers remained stationary and camouflaged themselves. Scouting parties were sent out ahead during the day, but were ordered to halt and remain motionless if aircraft appeared. The PVA soldiers were ill-prepared to march and fight in the sub-zero cold of North Korea. Many of the soldiers were from sub-tropical southeastern China and were unaccustomed to cold weather. In one division, an officer said that 700 men died of frostbite during their first week in Korea, even before the beginning of the offensive. Thus, the loss of soldiers en route to the battlefields was high. Uniforms were inadequate, few had gloves, relying on the long sleeves of their quilted uniforms to protect their hands; their footwear was made of rubber and canvas, offering little protection from the cold. Most soldiers slept on the ground as they had no tents. Weapons were in short supply. Some regiments of 2,000 to 3,000 men had only 800 firearms. Soldiers without firearms were armed with hand grenades. The Chinese armies left most of their artillery behind, and what remained was carried by pack animal. Communications were poor, with bugles, whistles, and runners the only means of communication below the battalion level. Food was in short supply and soldiers were often near-starving. Nine Chinese armies and 30 divisions were in North Korea when the Second Phase Offensive began. The total number of PVA soldiers has been estimated at upwards of 300,000. Few KPA soldiers were involved in the offensive. Eighteen divisions were allocated for the western offensive, the Battle of the Ch'ongch'on River, and 12 divisions were allocated for the eastern offensive, the Battle of Chosin Reservoir.

UN forces and strategy

The UN military forces consisted of two components, the

Eighth United States Army The Eighth Army is a U.S. field army which commands all United States Army forces in South Korea. It is headquartered at the Camp Humphreys in the Anjeong-ri of Pyeongtaek, Pyeongtaek, South Korea.X Corps on the eastern side. The rugged Nangnim Mountains and Taebaek Mountains and a "worrisome" gap separated the two components. On 24 November 1950, the Eighth Army occupied a line about long stretching west to east from the

Yellow Sea The Yellow Sea, also known as the North Sea, is a marginal sea of the Western Pacific Ocean located between mainland China and the Korean Peninsula, and can be considered the northwestern part of the East China Sea. Names It is one of four ...

across the broad coastal plain of the Ch'ongch'on River to the ridges of the Taebaek Mountains. The Eighth Army charged with carrying out the Home for Christmas offensive consisted of four U.S. infantry divisions, eight

Republic of Korea Army The Republic of Korea Army (ROKA; ), also known as the ROK Army or South Korean Army, is the army of South Korea, responsible for ground-based warfare. It is the largest of the military branches of the Republic of Korea Armed Forces with 365,0 ...

(ROK) divisions, Turkish and British brigades and a number of smaller units of the United States and several other countries. The U.S. divisions occupied the western section of the line, a mostly flat area, while the ROK occupied the hilly and mountainous eastern section of the line. Although less numerous than the PVA who may have numbered as many as 240,000 soldiers, the 130,000 front-line soldiers of the Eighth Army "with modern communications, ample artillery support, tanks and backed by adequate logistic support" were "not significantly inferior in terms of combat power to the much more numerous but primitive Chinese." However, the ROK divisions on the right side of the UN line were notably inferior to U.S. divisions, having fewer men and less artillery and having suffered heavy casualties during the First Phase Offensive. The replacements for those casualties were largely new recruits. UN forces in X Corps comprised five infantry divisions: the U.S.

1st Marine Division The 1st Marine Division (1st MARDIV) is a Marine (military), Marine Division (military), division of the United States Marine Corps headquartered at Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton, California. It is the ground combat element of the I Marine E ...

, the U.S. 3rd and 7th Infantry Divisions and two ROK divisions, altogether along with attached units totaling about 90,000 men. They would face PVA armies numbering up to 150,000. The U.S. Army and ROK divisions were primarily blocking roads and advancing with little resistance in northeastern North Korea and protecting the important supply ports of

Wonsan Wonsan (), previously known as Wonsanjin (), is a port city and naval base located in Kangwon Province (North Korea), Kangwon Province, North Korea, along the eastern side of the Korean Peninsula, on the Sea of Japan and the provincial capital. ...

and

Hungnam Hŭngnam () is a district of Hamhung, the second largest city in North Korea. It is a port city on the eastern coast on the Sea of Japan. It is only from the slightly inland city of Hamhung. In 2005 it became a ward of Hamhung. History The por ...

. One element of the 7th Division had already reached the Yalu River by 24 November, the starting date of the Home-by-Christmas offensive. The Chinese offensive in the east was directed primarily against the Chosin Reservoir (called Changjin in Korean) targeting the 1st Marine Division, located west and south of the Reservoir and U.S. army units named Task Force Faith, east of the Reservoir. The UN plan was for the Marines to push westward from Chosin Reservoir across the mountains to hook up with the advancing Eighth Army and close the gap between the two components of the UN offensive. In the days leading up to the start of the Chinese Second Phase Offensive, both 8th Army Commander General Walton Walker and U.S. 1st Marine Division Commander General Oliver P. Smith were wary of advancing as rapidly as MacArthur's headquarters in Japan urged them to do. Smith, in particular, had resisted the exhortations by X Corps commander General

Edward Almond Edward Mallory Almond (December 12, 1892 – June 11, 1979) was a senior United States Army officer who fought in World War I, World War II, where he commanded the 92nd Infantry Division, and the Korean War, where he commanded the U.S. X Corps ...

to move forward more quickly. Smith ensured that his Marine units were consolidated and mutually supportive. On the west, Walker was also warning his troops of the dangers of advancing carelessly against what seemed to many like an enemy of inferior numbers in a defensive posture.

Offensive

The Chinese strike

The Second Phase Offensive began when the Chinese attacked the Eighth Army on 25 November. "Rarely has so large an army had such an element of surprise against its adversary. The Americans on the west coast...were essentially blind to the trap they had walked into," said author

David Halberstam David Halberstam (April 10, 1934 April 23, 2007) was an American writer, journalist, and historian, known for his work on the Vietnam War, politics, history, the Civil Rights Movement, business, media, American culture, Korean War, and late ...

. The Chinese recognized that the ROK divisions on the right (eastern) flank of the UN line were the most vulnerable units and occupied difficult, mountainous terrain. By the next morning, the ROK units were shattered and in retreat and the advance of U.S. armies halted. By 1 December the Eighth Army had retreated about and attempted to establish a new defense line. The U.S. 2nd Infantry Division was already rendered ineffective, having suffered about 4,500 casualties. The number of ROK casualties is unknown but they were heavy. On 2 December, Walker ordered the retreat to continue which it did until 23 December and the PVA attacks ceased and the Second Phase Offensive ended. By then, the Eighth Army had retreated to near the border of South and North Korea in what the soldiers called the "big bugout." The Chinese attacked the UN forces on both sides of Chosin Reservoir on 27 November. The 1st Marines retreated in good order to Hungnam, albeit suffering heavy casualties. However, two-thirds of the 3,200 soldiers of Task Force Faith on the eastern side of Chosin Reservoir were killed, wounded, or captured. All X Corps' soldiers were evacuated from North Korea by 25 December. The evacuation of X Corps and the retreat of the Eighth Army ended the UN attempt to conquer North Korea.

Weather

Few battles have ever been fought under worse weather conditions than the Battle of Chosin Reservoir. All of North Korea is frigid in winter, but the cold was most intense for both the Chinese and the UN soldiers in the highlands around Chosin Reservoir. The average daily low for December at Chosin, elevation , is . By contrast the December average low for Hungnam south at near sea level in elevation is a relatively balmy . It was an exceptionally cold winter and estimates of the coldest temperatures encountered on the battlefield vary, but they were probably around . Casualties among both UN and PVA troops caused by frostbite were as numerous as those caused by combat. In U.S. Marine Corps lore, the battle is often referred to as "Frozen Chosin."

Casualties

The PVA suffered about 30,700 casualties from battles and 50,000 from non-battle causes, mostly frostbite. for a total of 80,000 casualties in the Second Phase Offensive, roughly 25 percent of their total force. 30,000 casualties were attributed to combat and 50,000 to noncombat casualties, especially frostbite. Losses in the Ch'ongch'on battle were about 10,000 from combat and 20,000 from other causes. PVA losses at the Chosin battle were about 20,000 from combat and 30,000 from non-combat. The Chinese claimed to have inflicted 36,000 casualties, including 24,000 Americans, on UN forces. This claim is fairly consistent with U.S. estimates of 29,000 UN casualties, 11,000 at the Ch'ongch'on battle and 18,000 at the Chosin Battle, which include almost 8,000 noncombat casualties, mostly frostbite. Records, however, of the Ch'ongch'on battle are incomplete, especially for the ROK forces in the battle.Chae, Han Kook; Chung, Suk Kyun; Yang, Yong Cho (2001), Yang, Hee Wan; Lim, Won Hyok; Sims, Thomas Lee; Sims, Laura Marie; Kim, Chong Gu; Millett, Allan R., eds., ''The Korean War, Volume II'', Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, p. 283

Aftermath

On 28 November 1950, shortly after the onset of the Chinese Second Phase Offensive, MacArthur cabled the U.S. government in Washington that, "We face an entirely new war." The reversal of fortunes in the Korea War was a shock to the military and political leaders of the United States. The U.S. contemplated that it might have to withdraw its military forces from Korea. Immediately given up was the idea that the two Koreas could be united into a single pro-U.S./UN country. The successful evacuation of UN forces by Christmas from Chosin bolstered U.S. confidence, but in a directive to MacArthur on 29 December 1950, the

Joint Chiefs of Staff The Joint Chiefs of Staff (JCS) is the body of the most senior uniformed leaders within the United States Department of Defense, which advises the president of the United States, the secretary of defense, the Homeland Security Council and ...

in Washington, instructed MacArthur to "resist aggression" but added that "Korea is not the place to fight a major war." MacArthur was told "to defend...inflicting such damage to hostile forces in Korea as is possible, subject to the primary consideration of the safety of your troops." The Chinese were pleased with the outcome of their Second Phase Offensive, having regained nearly all of North Korea from UN forces. However, the Chinese victory created the opinion among Chinese leaders that "we can defeat American armed forces." As a consequence of this confidence, the Chinese soon launched offensives into South Korea that would be turned back by the UN. By early 1951, the Korean War had turned into a stalemate and China had given up carrying out large-scale offensives.

References

November 1950 in Asia December 1950 in Asia 1950 in military history Battles of the Korean War involving China Battles of the Korean War involving the United States Battles of the Korean War involving the United Kingdom Battles of the Korean War involving Turkey Battles and operations of the Korean War in 1950 Battles of the Korean War involving South Korea Battles of the Korean War involving North Korea