After independence,

Jawaharlal Nehru Jawaharlal Nehru (14 November 1889 – 27 May 1964) was an Indian anti-colonial nationalist, secular humanist, social democrat, and statesman who was a central figure in India during the middle of the 20th century. Nehru was a pr ...

, the first

prime minister of India The prime minister of India (ISO 15919, ISO: ) is the head of government of the Republic of India. Executive authority is vested in the prime minister and his chosen Union Council of Ministers, Council of Ministers, despite the president of ...

, initiated reforms to promote higher education and science and technology in India. The

Indian Institute of Technology The Indian Institutes of Technology (IIT) are a network of engineering and technology institutions in India. Established in 1950, they are under the purview of the Ministry of Education of the Indian Government and are governed by the Instit ...

(IIT)—conceived by a 22-member committee of scholars and entrepreneurs in order to promote technical education—was inaugurated on 18 August 1951 at

Kharagpur Kharagpur () is a semi- planned urban agglomeration and a major industrial city in the Paschim Medinipur district of West Bengal, India. It is the headquarters of the Kharagpur subdivision and the largest city of the district. It is located 1 ...

in West Bengal by the

minister of education An education minister (sometimes minister of education) is a position in the governments of some countries responsible for dealing with educational matters. Where known, the government department, ministry, or agency that develops policy and deli ...

Maulana Abul Kalam Azad Abul Kalam Ghulam Muhiyuddin (11 November 188822 February 1958), better known as Maulana Azad and sometimes referred as Abul Kalam Azad, was an Indian politician, writer and activist of the Indian independence movement. A senior leader of t ...

. More IITs were soon opened in

Bombay Mumbai ( ; ), also known as Bombay ( ; its official name until 1995), is the capital city of the Indian States and union territories of India, state of Maharashtra. Mumbai is the financial centre, financial capital and the list of cities i ...

Madras Chennai, also known as Madras ( its official name until 1996), is the capital and largest city of Tamil Nadu, the southernmost state of India. It is located on the Coromandel Coast of the Bay of Bengal. According to the 2011 Indian ce ...

Kanpur Kanpur (Hindustani language, Hindustani: ), originally named Kanhapur and formerly anglicized as Cawnpore, is the second largest city of the Indian States and union territories of India, state of Uttar Pradesh after Lucknow. It was the primary ...

and

Delhi Delhi, officially the National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi, is a city and a union territory of India containing New Delhi, the capital of India. Straddling the Yamuna river, but spread chiefly to the west, or beyond its Bank (geography ...

as well in the late 1950s and early 1960s along with the Regional Engineering Colleges (RECs) (now

National Institutes of Technology The National Institutes of Technology (NITs) are centrally funded technical institutes under the ownership of the Ministry of Education, Government of India. They are governed by the National Institutes of Technology, Science Education, and ...

(NIT). Beginning in the 1960s, close ties with the

Soviet Union The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...

enabled the

Indian Space Research Organisation The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO ) is India's national List of government space agencies, space agency, headquartered in Bengaluru, Karnataka. It serves as the principal research and development arm of the Department of Space (DoS), ...

to rapidly develop the Indian space program and advance

nuclear power in India Nuclear power is the fifth-largest source of electricity in India after coal, hydroelectricity, hydro, solar and wind. , India has 25 nuclear reactors in operation in 8 nuclear power plants, with a total installed capacity of 8,880 MW. Nuclear ...

even after the first nuclear test explosion by India on 18 May 1974 at

Pokhran Pokhran (official spelling Pokaran; ) is a town and a municipality located 112 km east of Jaisalmer city in the Jaisalmer district of the Indian state of Rajasthan. It is situated in the Thar Desert region. Surrounded by rocks, sand and ...

. India accounts for about 10% of all expenditure on

research and development Research and development (R&D or R+D), known in some countries as OKB, experiment and design, is the set of innovative activities undertaken by corporations or governments in developing new services or products. R&D constitutes the first stage ...

in Asia and the number of scientific publications grew by 45% over the five years to 2007. However, according to former Indian science and technology minister

Kapil Sibal Kapil Sibal (born 8 August 1948) is an Indian lawyer and politician. A designated Senior Advocate, he is currently the President of Supreme Court Bar Association (SCBA). He has represented several high-profile cases in the Supreme Court of In ...

, India is lagging in science and technology compared to developed countries. India has only 140 researchers per 1,000,000 population, compared to 4,651 in the United States. India invested US$3.7 billion in science and technology in 2002–2003. For comparison, China invested about four times more than India, while the United States invested approximately 75 times more than India on science and technology. Research and development spending grew to US$17.2 in 2020–2021. While India has increased its output of scientific papers fourfold between 2000 and 2015 overtaking Russia and France in absolute number of papers per year, that rate has been exceeded by China and Brazil; Indian papers generate fewer cites than average, and relative to its population it has few scientists. In the quality-adjusted

Nature Index The Nature Index is a database that tracks institutions and countries/territories and their scientific output since its introduction in November 2014. Originally released with 64 natural-science journals, the Nature Index expanded to 82 natural-sci ...

India was ranked ninth worldwide in 2023 and recorded faster growth than China in this year, albeit from a lower base. India is ranked 39th in the

Global Innovation Index The Global Innovation Index is an annual ranking of countries by their capacity for and success in innovation, published by the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO). It was started in 2007 by INSEAD and ''World Business'', a Britis ...

in 2024.

History

1947–1967

India aimed "to convert India's economy into that of a modern state and to fit her into the nuclear age and do it quickly."Nanda 2006 It was understood that India had not been at the forefront of the

Industrial Revolution The Industrial Revolution, sometimes divided into the First Industrial Revolution and Second Industrial Revolution, was a transitional period of the global economy toward more widespread, efficient and stable manufacturing processes, succee ...

, and hence made an effort to promote

higher education Tertiary education (higher education, or post-secondary education) is the educational level following the completion of secondary education. The World Bank defines tertiary education as including universities, colleges, and vocational schools ...

, and science and technology in India. The Planning Commission (1950) fixed investment levels, prescribed priorities, divided funds between

agriculture Agriculture encompasses crop and livestock production, aquaculture, and forestry for food and non-food products. Agriculture was a key factor in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created ...

and

industry Industry may refer to: Economics * Industry (economics), a generally categorized branch of economic activity * Industry (manufacturing), a specific branch of economic activity, typically in factories with machinery * The wider industrial sector ...

, and divided resources between the state and the federal

governments A government is the system or group of people governing an organized community, generally a state. In the case of its broad associative definition, government normally consists of legislature, executive, and judiciary. Government is a m ...

. The result of the efforts between 1947 and 1962 saw the area under irrigation increase by , food production rise by 34 million

metric tons The tonne ( or ; symbol: t) is a unit of mass equal to 1,000 kilograms. It is a non-SI unit accepted for use with SI. It is also referred to as a metric ton in the United States to distinguish it from the non-metric units of the sh ...

, installed power generating capacity increase by 79 million

kilowatts The watt (symbol: W) is the unit of power or radiant flux in the International System of Units (SI), equal to 1 joule per second or 1 kg⋅m2⋅s−3. It is used to quantify the rate of energy transfer. The watt is named in honor of ...

, and an overall increase of 94 percent in

industrial production Industrial production is a measure of output of the industrial sector of the economy. The industrial sector includes manufacturing, mining, and utilities. Although these sectors contribute only a small portion of gross domestic product (GDP), they ...

. The enormous population rise, however, would balance the gains. The economically beleaguered country was nevertheless able to build a large scientific workforce, second in numbers only to that of the United States and the Soviet Union. Education—provided by the government of India—was free and compulsory up to the Age of 14.Prabhu 2006 More emphasis was paid to the enhancement of vocational and technical skills. J.P. Naik, member-secretary of the Indian Education Commission, commented on the educational policies of the time: Trombay

On 18 August 1951 the minister of education

, inaugurated the

in West Bengal.Vrat 2006 Possibly modeled after the

Massachusetts Institute of Technology The Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) is a Private university, private research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States. Established in 1861, MIT has played a significant role in the development of many areas of moder ...

these institutions were conceived by a 22-member committee of scholars and entrepreneurs under the chairmanship of N.R. Sarkar. The

Sino-Indian war The Sino–Indian War, also known as the China–India War or the Indo–China War, was an armed conflict between China and India that took place from October to November 1962. It was a military escalation of the Sino–Indian border dispu ...

(1962) came as a rude awakening to military preparedness.Khan 2006 Military cooperation with the Soviet Union—partially aimed at developing advanced military technology—was pursued during subsequent years. The

Defence Research and Development Organisation The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) is an agency under the Department of Defence Research and Development in the Ministry of Defence of the Government of India, charged with the military's research and development, head ...

was formed in 1958. Radio broadcasting was initiated in 1927 but became state responsibility only in 1930.Schwartzberg 2008 In 1947 it was given the name ''

All India Radio All India Radio (AIR), also known as Akashvani (), is India's state-owned public broadcasting, public radio broadcaster. Founded in 1936, it operates under the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting (India), Ministry of Information and Broa ...

'' and since 1957 it has been called ''Akashvani''. Limited duration of television programming began in 1959, and complete broadcasting followed in 1965. The Indian Government acquired the EVS EM computers from the Soviet Union, which were used in large companies and research laboratories.Desai 2006

1967–1985

The roots of

lie in the early acquisition of nuclear reactor technology from several western countries, particularly the American support for the

Tarapur Atomic Power Station Tarapur Atomic Power Station (T.A.P.S.) is located in Tarapur, Palghar, India. It was the first commercial nuclear power station built in India. It is the fourth largest nuclear power plants in the country. It has 4 reactors, 2 BWR-1 of 16 ...

and Canada's

CANDU reactor The CANDU (CANada Deuterium Uranium) is a Canadian pressurized heavy-water reactor design used to generate electric power. The acronym refers to its deuterium oxide (heavy water) moderator and its use of (originally, natural) uranium fuel. CA ...

s.Raja 2006 The peaceful policies of

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (2October 186930January 1948) was an Indian lawyer, anti-colonial nationalist, and political ethicist who employed nonviolent resistance to lead the successful campaign for India's independence from British ru ...

may have delayed the inception of nuclear technology in India.

Stanley Wolpert Stanley Albert Wolpert (December 23, 1927 – February 19, 2019) was an American historian, Indologist, and author on the political and intellectual history of modern India and PakistanDr. Stanley Wolpert's UCLA Faculty homepage and wrote fict ...

(2008) describes the measures taken by the Indian government to increase agricultural output:Wolpert 2008 The Indian space program received only financial support from the Soviet Union, which helped the

achieve aims such as establishing the

Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS) is India's first rocket launching station and was established on 21 November 1963. Operated by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), it is located in Thumba, Thiruvananthapuram, which ...

, launching

remote sensing Remote sensing is the acquisition of information about an physical object, object or phenomenon without making physical contact with the object, in contrast to in situ or on-site observation. The term is applied especially to acquiring inform ...

satellites, developing India's first satellite—

Aryabhatta Aryabhata ( ISO: ) or Aryabhata I (476–550 CE) was the first of the major mathematician-astronomers from the classical age of Indian mathematics and Indian astronomy. His works include the ''Āryabhaṭīya'' (which mentions that in 3600 '' ...

, and sending astronauts into space. India sustained its nuclear program during the aftermath of

Operation Smiling Buddha Smiling Buddha ( MEA designation: Pokhran-I) was the code name of India's first successful nuclear weapon test on 18 May 1974. The nuclear fission bomb was detonated in the Pokhran Test Range of the Indian Army in Rajasthan. As per the United ...

, the country's first nuclear tests. Though the roots of the Steel Authority of India Ltd. lie in Hindustan Steel Private Limited (1954), the events leading up to the formation of the modern avatar are described below: In 1981, the

Indian Antarctic Programme The Indian Antarctic Programme is a multi-disciplinary, multi-institutional programme under the control of the National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research, Ministry of Earth Sciences, Government of India. It was initiated in 1981 with the fi ...

was started when the first Indian expedition was flagged off for

Antarctica Antarctica () is Earth's southernmost and least-populated continent. Situated almost entirely south of the Antarctic Circle and surrounded by the Southern Ocean (also known as the Antarctic Ocean), it contains the geographic South Pole. ...

from

Goa Goa (; ; ) is a state on the southwestern coast of India within the Konkan region, geographically separated from the Deccan highlands by the Western Ghats. It is bound by the Indian states of Maharashtra to the north, and Karnataka to the ...

. More missions were subsequently sent each year to India's base Dakshin Gangotri.

1986–1990

Indian agriculture benefited from the developments made in the field of biotechnology, for which the

Department of Biotechnology The Department of Biotechnology (DBT) is an Indian government department, under the Ministry of Science and Technology responsible for administrating development and commercialisation in the field of modern biology and biotechnology in India. ...

was created in 1986 under the Ministry of Science and Technology.Sharma 2006, ''Biotechnology Revolution'' Both the Indian private sector and the government have invested in the medical and agricultural applications of biotechnology. Massive biotech parks were established in India while the government provided tax deduction for research and development under biotechnological firms.

1991–2000

The Indian economy underwent economic reforms in 1991, leading to a new era of globalisation and international economic integration.Sharma 2006 ''Globalization'' Economic growth of over 6% annually was seen between 1993 and 2002. In the same year a new permanent Antarctic base Maitri was founded and remains in operation till today.

2001–present

On 25 June 2002, India and the European Union agreed to bilateral cooperation in the field of science and technology.Ketkar 2006 A joint EU-India group of scholars was formed on 23 November 2001 to further promote joint research and development. India holds Associate Member State status at the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN), while a joint India-EU Software Education and Development Centre is due at

Bangalore Bengaluru, also known as Bangalore (List of renamed places in India#Karnataka, its official name until 1 November 2014), is the Capital city, capital and largest city of the southern States and union territories of India, Indian state of Kar ...

. Certain scientists and activists, such as Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)

systems scientist Systems science, also referred to as systems research or simply systems, is a transdisciplinary field that is concerned with understanding simple and complex systems in nature and society, which leads to the advancements of formal, natural, socia ...

VA Shiva Ayyadurai, blame

caste A caste is a Essentialism, fixed social group into which an individual is born within a particular system of social stratification: a caste system. Within such a system, individuals are expected to marry exclusively within the same caste (en ...

for holding back innovation and scientific research in India, making it difficult to sustain progress while regressive social organisation prevails. In addition, corruption and inefficiencies in the research sector have resulted in corruption scandals and undermine innovation initiatives. Bangalore is considered to be the technological capital of India. IT, biotechnology, aerospace, nuclear science, manufacturing technology, automobile engineering, chemical engineering, ship building, space science, electronics, computer science and other medical science related research and development are occurring on a large scale in the country. In 2017, India became an associate member of European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN).

India's science and technology policy

The Government of India has passed four policy documents on science and technology: * Science Policy Resolution 1958 * Technology Policy Statement 1983 * Science and Technology Policy 2003 * Science, Technology, and Innovation Policy 2013 The fifth policy, the National Science, Technology, and Innovation Policy, is in the draft and public consultation stage.

Space exploration

Mars Orbit Mission

Mars Orbiter Mission - India - ArtistsConcept

The Mars Orbiter Mission, also called "Mangalyaan", was launched on 5 November 2013 by the

(ISRO). It is India's first interplanetary mission, making

ISRO The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO ) is India's national space agency, headquartered in Bengaluru, Karnataka. It serves as the principal research and development arm of the Department of Space (DoS), overseen by the Prime Minister o ...

the fourth

space agency Space is a three-dimensional In geometry, a three-dimensional space (3D space, 3-space or, rarely, tri-dimensional space) is a mathematical space in which three values (''coordinates'') are required to determine the position (geometry), ...

to reach Mars, after the

Soviet space program The Soviet space program () was the state space program of the Soviet Union, active from 1951 until the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. Contrary to its competitors (NASA in the United States, the European Space Agency in Western Euro ...

NASA The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA ) is an independent agencies of the United States government, independent agency of the federal government of the United States, US federal government responsible for the United States ...

, and the

European Space Agency The European Space Agency (ESA) is a 23-member International organization, international organization devoted to space exploration. With its headquarters in Paris and a staff of around 2,547 people globally as of 2023, ESA was founded in 1975 ...

. The first Asian nation to reach

Mars orbit Mars has an orbit with a semimajor axis of 1.524 astronomical units (228 million km) (12.673 light minutes), and an eccentricity of 0.0934.Jean Meeus, ''Astronomical Formulæ for Calculators''. (Richmond, VA: Willmann-Bell, 1988) 99. Elements b ...

and the first nation to do so on its first attempt was India.

Chandrayaan programme

On 18 November 2008, the Moon Impact probe was released from Chandrayaan-1 at a height of . During its 25-minute descent, Chandra's Altitudinal Composition Explorer (CHACE) recorded evidence of water in 650 mass spectra readings gathered during this time. On 24 September 2009 ''

Science Science is a systematic discipline that builds and organises knowledge in the form of testable hypotheses and predictions about the universe. Modern science is typically divided into twoor threemajor branches: the natural sciences, which stu ...

'' journal reported that the Chandrayaan-1 had detected water ice on the Moon. Chandrayaan-2 was launched on 22 July 2019. It was a partial success: The team wanted to send an additional lander with rover Vikram with the original orbiter in it, to mark India's terrestrial presence on Moon, but the signal connection was lost about above the lunar surface. Over several months the team tried to resume contact with lander, but ended up with no success. Later, by the late February 2020, it was claimed that an Indian software engineer from Chennai living in USA studied the NASA data of the proposed crash site and found the Lander. Chandrayaan-3 is the next planned mission of sending only the lander with rover inside on the Moon, with the Japan's

JAXA The is the Japanese national air and space agency. Through the merger of three previously independent organizations, JAXA was formed on 1 October 2003. JAXA is responsible for research, technology development and launch of satellites into o ...

. It was delayed due to the

COVID-19 pandemic The COVID-19 pandemic (also known as the coronavirus pandemic and COVID pandemic), caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), began with an disease outbreak, outbreak of COVID-19 in Wuhan, China, in December ...

Gaganyaan

Gaganyaan Gaganyaan (,, from Sanskrit: , "celestial" and , "craft, vehicle") is an Indian List of crewed spacecraft, crewed orbital spacecraft intended to be the formative spacecraft of the Indian Human Spaceflight Programme. The spacecraft is being des ...

is a future planned, "in development process" space module to send the Indian astronauts into space, who are being trained in Russia. The plan is to establish a new "space station" other than the

ISS The International Space Station (ISS) is a large space station that was assembled and is maintained in low Earth orbit by a collaboration of five space agencies and their contractors: NASA (United States), Roscosmos (Russia), ESA (Europe), ...

. India has kept itself from being part of the program, to show its "

self reliance "Self-Reliance" is an 1841 essay written by American transcendentalist philosopher Ralph Waldo Emerson. It contains the most thorough statement of one of his recurrent themes: the need for each person to avoid conformity and false consistency, ...

". The program was also, delayed due to the pandemic of COVID-19.

Thirty Meter Telescope

The Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT) is a planned, eighteen story, astronomical observatory and

extremely large telescope The Extremely Large Telescope (ELT) is an astronomical observatory under construction. When completed, it will be the world's largest optical and near-infrared extremely large telescope. Part of the European Southern Observatory (ESO) agency, ...

to be built on the summit of

Mauna Kea Mauna Kea (, ; abbreviation for ''Mauna a Wākea''); is a dormant Shield volcano, shield volcano on the Hawaii (island), island of Hawaii. Its peak is above sea level, making it the List of U.S. states by elevation, highest point in Hawaii a ...

in the state of

Hawaii Hawaii ( ; ) is an island U.S. state, state of the United States, in the Pacific Ocean about southwest of the U.S. mainland. One of the two Non-contiguous United States, non-contiguous U.S. states (along with Alaska), it is the only sta ...

. The TMT is designed for

near-ultraviolet Ultraviolet radiation, also known as simply UV, is electromagnetic radiation of wavelengths of 10–400 nanometers, shorter than that of visible light, but longer than X-rays. UV radiation is present in sunlight and constitutes about 10% of the ...

mid-infrared Infrared (IR; sometimes called infrared light) is electromagnetic radiation (EMR) with wavelengths longer than that of visible light but shorter than microwaves. The infrared spectral band begins with the waves that are just longer than those of ...

(0.31 to 28

μm The micrometre (Commonwealth English as used by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures; SI symbol: μm) or micrometer (American English), also commonly known by the non-SI term micron, is a unit of length in the International System ...

wavelength) observations, featuring adaptive optics to assist in correcting image blur. The TMT will be at the highest altitude of all the proposed Extremely Large Telescopes (ELT). The telescope has government-level support from several R&D spending nations: China, Japan, Canada and India.

Institutions and facilities

Science academies in India

The idea of science academies in India has evolved along with the Indian independence movement. The three major science academies;

Indian National Science Academy The Indian National Science Academy (INSA) is a national academy in New Delhi New Delhi (; ) is the Capital city, capital of India and a part of the Delhi, National Capital Territory of Delhi (NCT). New Delhi is the seat of all three b ...

Indian Academy of Sciences The Indian Academy of Sciences, Bangalore was founded by Indian Physicist and List of Nobel laureates, Nobel Laureate Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman, C. V. Raman, and was registered as a society on 27 April 1934. Inaugurated on 31 July 1934, it ...

and the

National Academy of Sciences, India The National Academy of Sciences, India, also known as NASI, was established in 1930 and is the oldest science academy of India. It is located in Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh. Prof. Meghnad Saha was the founder president. Fellows * Suddhasatwa Bas ...

were all founded in the pre-independence era (pre-1947) between 1930 and 1935. Indian Academy of Sciences Also colloquially referred to as the "Bangalore Academy",

(IAS) was founded in 1934 by C. V. Raman, a Nobel laureate in physicis of his time in Bangalore (now Bengaluru), Karnataka (formerly known as the State of Mysore), India.⠀⠀ National Academy of Sciences, India The founder and first president of the

(NASI) was

Meghnad Saha Meghnad Saha (6 October 1893 – 16 February 1956) was an Indian astrophysicist and politician who helped devise the theory of Thermal ionization, thermal ionisation. His Saha ionization equation, Saha ionisation equation allowed astronomers to ...

in 1930 in Allahabad (Prayag), Uttar Pradesh, India. Indian National Science Academy Founded in 1935 based on a proposal by the

Indian Science Congress Association Indian Science Congress Association (ISCA) is a premier scientific organisation of India with headquarters at Kolkata, West Bengal. The association started in the year 1914 in Calcutta and it meets annually in the first week of January. It h ...

(ISCA) and National Institute of Science of India (NISI) with Meghnad Saha's blessings,

(INSA) is based in New Delhi, India. According to its charter, the historical aim of INSA was to be similar to the Royal Society, London, a gathering of learned people to exchange ideas and further science.

Biosafety facilities in India

Performance of Indian students in International Science Olympiads

India's rank based on number of Gold Medals in last 10 years (2014–2023): * Physics – 9th * Chemistry – 11th * Biology – 14th * Mathematics – 21st

References

;Citations ;Bibliography * Alexander, Steve. ''E-Commerce. (2006: from Computers and Information Systems)''.

Encyclopædia Britannica The is a general knowledge, general-knowledge English-language encyclopaedia. It has been published by Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. since 1768, although the company has changed ownership seven times. The 2010 version of the 15th edition, ...

2008. * Desai, Ashok V. (2006). "Information and other Technology Development" in ''

Encyclopedia of India The ''Encyclopedia of India'' is a four-volume encyclopedia on Indian history and culture under editor-in-chief Stanley Wolpert. The series was published by Gale (Cengage) in November 2005 under . The ''Library Journal'' has described Wolper ...

(vol. 2)'', edited by Stanley Wolpert. 269–273. Thomson Gale: . * Ketkar, Prafulla (2006). "European Union, Relations with (Science and technology)" in ''Encyclopedia of India (vol. 2)'', edited by Stanley Wolpert. 48–51. Thomson Gale: * Khan, Sultanat Aisha (2006). "Russia, relations with" in ''Encyclopedia of India (vol. 3)'', edited by Stanley Wolpert. 419–422. Thomson Gale: . * Prabhu, Joseph (2006). "Institutions and Philosophies, Traditional and Modern" in ''Encyclopedia of India (vol. 2)'', edited by Stanley Wolpert. 23–27. Thomson Gale: * Raja, Rajendran (2006). "Nuclear weapons testing and development" in ''Encyclopedia of India (vol. 3)'', edited by Stanley Wolpert. 253–254. Thomson Gale: . * Sankar, U.(2007). The Economics of India's Space Programme, Oxford University Press, New Delhi. . * Sharma. Shalendra D.(2006). "Biotechnology Revolution" in ''Encyclopedia of India (vol. 1)'', edited by Stanley Wolpert. 154–157. Thomson Gale: . * Sharma, Shalendra D. (2006). "Globalization" in ''Encyclopedia of India (vol. 2)'', edited by Stanley Wolpert. 146–149. Thomson Gale: * Schwartzberg, Joseph E. (2008). ''India''. Encyclopædia Britannica. * Vrat, Prem (2006). "Indian Institutes of Technology" in ''Encyclopedia of India (vol. 2)'', edited by Stanley Wolpert. 229–231. Thomson Gale: * Wolpert, Stanley (2008). ''India''. Encyclopædia Britannica.

External links

''India: Science and technology''. U.S. Library of Congress.
*

(2001).
Pursuit and promotion of science: The Indian Experience
'. Indian National Science Academy.

Matin Durrani,

Physics World ''Physics World'' is the membership magazine of the Institute of Physics, one of the largest physical societies in the world. It is an international monthly magazine covering all areas of physics, pure and applied, and is aimed at physicists in ...

, 2012.
Where India Lagged? – Glimpse of India
*

' Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider

' Indian contribution {{DEFAULTSORT:Science And Technology In India Science and technology in India, History of science and technology in India Indian inventions