
Scapulimancy (also spelled scapulomancy and scapulamancy, also termed omoplatoscopy or speal bone reading) is the practice of
divination
Divination () is the attempt to gain insight into a question or situation by way of an occultic ritual or practice. Using various methods throughout history, diviners ascertain their interpretations of how a should proceed by reading signs, ...
by use of
scapula
The scapula (: scapulae or scapulas), also known as the shoulder blade, is the bone that connects the humerus (upper arm bone) with the clavicle (collar bone). Like their connected bones, the scapulae are paired, with each scapula on either side ...
e or speal bones (shoulder blades). It is most widely practiced in
China
China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. With population of China, a population exceeding 1.4 billion, it is the list of countries by population (United Nations), second-most populous country after ...
and the
Sinosphere
The Sinosphere, also known as the Chinese cultural sphere, East Asian cultural sphere, or the Sinic world, encompasses multiple countries in East Asia and Southeast Asia that were historically heavily influenced by Chinese culture. The Sinosph ...
as
oracle bones
Oracle bones are pieces of ox scapula and turtle plastron which were used in pyromancya form of divinationduring the Late Shang period () in ancient China. '' Scapulimancy'' is the specific term if ox scapulae were used for the divination, '' ...
, but has also been independently developed in other traditions including the
West
West is one of the four cardinal directions or points of the compass. It is the opposite direction from east and is the direction in which the Sun sets on the Earth.
Etymology
The word "west" is a Germanic word passed into some Romance langu ...
.
Historically, scapulimancy has taken two major forms. In the first, "apyromantic", the scapula of an animal was simply examined after its slaughter. This form was widespread in
Europe
Europe is a continent located entirely in the Northern Hemisphere and mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere. It is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, the Mediterranean Sea to the south, and Asia to the east ...
,
Northern Africa
North Africa (sometimes Northern Africa) is a region encompassing the northern portion of the African continent. There is no singularly accepted scope for the region. However, it is sometimes defined as stretching from the Atlantic shores of t ...
and the
Near East
The Near East () is a transcontinental region around the Eastern Mediterranean encompassing the historical Fertile Crescent, the Levant, Anatolia, Egypt, Mesopotamia, and coastal areas of the Arabian Peninsula. The term was invented in the 20th ...
. However, the second form, "
pyromantic" scapulimancy, involving the heating or burning of the bone and interpretation of the results, was practiced in
East Asia
East Asia is a geocultural region of Asia. It includes China, Japan, Mongolia, North Korea, South Korea, and Taiwan, plus two special administrative regions of China, Hong Kong and Macau. The economies of Economy of China, China, Economy of Ja ...
and
North America
North America is a continent in the Northern Hemisphere, Northern and Western Hemisphere, Western hemispheres. North America is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South Ameri ...
.
Americas
The belief amongst the Mistassini
Cree
The Cree, or nehinaw (, ), are a Indigenous peoples of the Americas, North American Indigenous people, numbering more than 350,000 in Canada, where they form one of the country's largest First Nations in Canada, First Nations. They live prim ...
and Naskapi
Innu
The Innu/Ilnu ('man, person'), formerly called Montagnais (French for ' mountain people'; ), are the Indigenous Canadians who inhabit northeastern Labrador in present-day Newfoundland and Labrador and some portions of Quebec. They refer to ...
peoples was that all animal remains were to be treated in accordance with taboos.
This can blur the distinction between ritually or religiously significant remains and
secular
Secularity, also the secular or secularness (from Latin , or or ), is the state of being unrelated or neutral in regards to religion. The origins of secularity can be traced to the Bible itself. The concept was fleshed out through Christian hi ...
uses of the remains, which is a point of contention within existing literature.
Rituals involving the divination of animal bones have been found on sacred sites of the Naskapi Innu and Eastern Cree peoples.
[Speck, Frank G. 2935. Naskapi, the Savage Hunters of the Labrador Peninsula. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press] Bones which were found hanging in trees were often displayed near encampments or a slaughter site, where hunted animals were brought. The remains were used as a medium through which divination messages were transmitted, and as such, respectful treatment of the bones was of utmost importance.
The treatment of the bones between the two tribes was similar, both treating the remains with a degree of reverence, but the divination application differed.
Naskapi Innu

The Naskapi inhabited the region spanning the
Quebec
Quebec is Canada's List of Canadian provinces and territories by area, largest province by area. Located in Central Canada, the province shares borders with the provinces of Ontario to the west, Newfoundland and Labrador to the northeast, ...
-Labrador Peninsula, an area populated sparsely with native
timber
Lumber is wood that has been processed into uniform and useful sizes (dimensional lumber), including beams and planks or boards. Lumber is mainly used for construction framing, as well as finishing (floors, wall panels, window frames). ...
forests and native flora but largely consisted of snow
tundra
In physical geography, a tundra () is a type of biome where tree growth is hindered by frigid temperatures and short growing seasons. There are three regions and associated types of tundra: #Arctic, Arctic, Alpine tundra, Alpine, and #Antarctic ...
. The native
Algonkian speaking peoples are related in their common use of scapulimancy (mitunsaawaakan), differentiating them from other native populations in the Americas.
Generally, scapulimancy and associated divination practices were used concurrently, and were significant in predicting future weather events, personal health status and were essential in religious practices.
Principally, scapulimancy was used to aid in the hunting of
caribou
The reindeer or caribou (''Rangifer tarandus'') is a species of deer with circumpolar distribution, native to Arctic, subarctic, tundra, boreal, and mountainous regions of Northern Europe, Siberia, and North America. It is the only represe ...
to ensure that communities had a sufficient supply of meat to sustain them through the winter.
Associated divination rituals were performed prior to scapulimantic reading. This often included sweat bathing and percussive music performed on deer-skin drums or rattles to induce a dream state.
Hunters would participate in this ritual was performed by
shamans
Shamanism is a spiritual practice that involves a practitioner (shaman) interacting with the Spirit (supernatural entity), spirit world through Altered state of consciousness, altered states of consciousness, such as trance. The goal of th ...
on the hunting tribespeople to help them in focalising on a dream where they were involved in hunting caribou. After awakening from their dream-state, the scapula harvested from previous hunts were used in a pyromantic ritual, which would direct the hunters to the location of the deer herd envisioned in their dream ritual.
Methods used to prepare the animal remains included removing all flesh from the bone by scraping, boiling and air drying the scapula by hanging up in the wind to dry.
The animal from which the bone was from was also ritually significant.
Caribou were preferred by the Innu people, as they were the main and most desirable species to be hunted. Divination would only be used where there was a shortage of food or a crisis.
The process involved holding the cleaned shoulder blade over hot coals, heating and scorching the bone. The wide plane of the blade corresponded to the hunting grounds used at the time, and the cracks and scorch spots which resulted from the process were used to guide Innu hunters to spots to best find caribou deer to hunt.
The practitioners of scapulimancy and the Naskapi held reverence and respect towards the bone reading
rituals. Relationships between practitioners and the spirit world played an important role in the scapulimantic ceremony.
If the
spirits had been angered by the practitioner, their wrath would be incurred, causing the reading to be deceitful to the hunters, causing them to return empty handed.
To ensure that the relationship remained intact, practitioners would ensure that the specific preparations had been performed correctly and that the supplicant is honest and respectful in their dealings with the spirit world and their physical mediums.
In the modern day, these rituals are not practiced as often, although the knowledge has been passed down through
oral traditions
Oral tradition, or oral lore, is a form of human communication in which knowledge, art, ideas and culture are received, preserved, and transmitted orally from one generation to another. Vansina, Jan: ''Oral Tradition as History'' (1985), reporte ...
.
The spiritual significance of the ritual is still held in high regard, although the interpretations yielded are largely unacted upon, as the practice is performed to maintain the traditions of old.
Mistassini Cree
Unlike that of the Naskapi Innu, the Mistassini Cree practiced multiple forms of scapulimancy. The work of academic Adrian Tanner in the field uncovered that the communities visited exclusively used porcupine scapulae in bone reading rituals.

Caribou in particular were seen as spiritually powerful creatures and were revered in many native Northern populations. Consequently, the reverence towards the animal's spirit was carried to any remains of the hunted creature.
This power could only be tuned by a shaman with sufficient experience and spiritual power. With the death of an elder shaman, caribou remains were not used in rituals. The size of the scapula correlated to the power stored within, and as such caribou scapulae were individually hung in trees, separated from the other remains used in bone reading.
Historically, these larger scapulae were used in only the direst of circumstances by diviners and could see multiple readings performed if the situation worsened.
A point of difference between the use of scapulimancy between the Naskapi and Mistassini Cree is that the latter employed the use of bone reading to foresee a specific event in the future.
Additionally, snowshoes were occasionally used as a frame for the scapulae before the cleaning and flaming of the bone commenced. This was symbolic of a journey that hunters were to embark on in the near future, imbuing energy into the scapulae.
After the burning ceremony, the charred scapula was given to a child who would take it to each to each tepee, calling upon all members of the group forward.
This would allow all to interpret the scapulae and draw their own conclusions before the diviner was called. Interpretations of the bone were often consistent between individuals, but the diviner's judgement was more highly respected.
The inedible parts of animals, mainly the bones, also possesses the spirit of the animal. Hunters would communicate with the remains, talking to the scapula after the ceremony. They would ask the spirit to leave the medium and fly around the land of spirits and return to tell them what they saw.
East Asia
In the context of the
oracle bone
Oracle bones are pieces of ox scapula and turtle plastron which were used in pyromancya form of divinationduring the Late Shang period () in ancient China. '' Scapulimancy'' is the specific term if ox scapulae were used for the divination, ''p ...
s of ancient
China
China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. With population of China, a population exceeding 1.4 billion, it is the list of countries by population (United Nations), second-most populous country after ...
, which chiefly utilized both scapulae and turtles'
plastron
The turtle shell is a shield for the ventral and dorsal parts of turtles (the Order (biology), order Testudines), completely enclosing all the turtle's vital organs and in some cases even the head. It is constructed of modified bony elements such ...
s, ''scapulimancy'' is sometimes used in a very broad sense to jointly refer to both scapulimancy and
plastromancy (similar divination using plastrons). However, the term ''osteomancy'' might be more appropriate, referring to divination using
bone
A bone is a rigid organ that constitutes part of the skeleton in most vertebrate animals. Bones protect the various other organs of the body, produce red and white blood cells, store minerals, provide structure and support for the body, ...
s. Many archaeological sites along the south coast and offlying islands of the
Korean peninsula
Korea is a peninsular region in East Asia consisting of the Korean Peninsula, Jeju Island, and smaller islands. Since the end of World War II in 1945, it has been politically divided at or near the 38th parallel between North Korea (Dem ...
show that deer and pig scapulae were used in divination during the
Korea
Korea is a peninsular region in East Asia consisting of the Korean Peninsula, Jeju Island, and smaller islands. Since the end of World War II in 1945, it has been politically Division of Korea, divided at or near the 38th parallel north, 3 ...
n
Protohistoric Period, – 300/400 AD.
Scapulimancy was also mentioned in Chapter 5 of the ''
Kojiki
The , also sometimes read as or , is an early Japanese chronicle of myths, legends, hymns, genealogies, oral traditions, and semi-historical accounts down to 641 concerning the origin of the Japanese archipelago, the , and the Japanese imperia ...
'', the
Japan
Japan is an island country in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean off the northeast coast of the Asia, Asian mainland, it is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan and extends from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea ...
ese Record of Ancient Matters, in which the heavenly deities used this process of divination during a consultation by lesser gods.
China
Archaeological
Archaeology or archeology is the study of human activity through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological record consists of Artifact (archaeology), artifacts, architecture, biofact (archaeology), biofacts or ecofacts, ...
discoveries in the past century have centred around the Late
Shang dynasty
The Shang dynasty (), also known as the Yin dynasty (), was a Chinese royal dynasty that ruled in the Yellow River valley during the second millennium BC, traditionally succeeding the Xia dynasty and followed by the Western Zhou d ...
’s capital city in
Henan
Henan; alternatively Honan is a province in Central China. Henan is home to many heritage sites, including Yinxu, the ruins of the final capital of the Shang dynasty () and the Shaolin Temple. Four of the historical capitals of China, Lu ...
, where many specimens were found. This period spanned from 1250 to 1046 BC, and is historically significant due to the emperor of the time, Di Xin of Shang (
King Zhou
King Zhou (; ) was the pejorative posthumous name given to Di Xin of Shang () or Shou, King of Shang (), the last king of the Shang dynasty of ancient China. He is also called Zhou Xin (). In Chinese, his name Zhòu ( 紂) also refers to a horse c ...
), was the chief oracle diviner.
The status of divination was held in high social regard, with King Zhou and the
diviners
Divination () is the attempt to gain insight into a question or situation by way of an occultic ritual or practice. Using various methods throughout history, diviners ascertain their interpretations of how a should proceed by reading signs, ...
of the
royal court
A royal court, often called simply a court when the royal context is clear, is an extended royal household in a monarchy, including all those who regularly attend on a monarch, or another central figure. Hence, the word ''court'' may also be app ...
assuming positions of undisputed authority.
Carbon dating of specimens have categorised specimens from the Late Shang period, which share similar features due to the standardisation of scapulimantic procedures prior to heating.
Cattle
Cattle (''Bos taurus'') are large, domesticated, bovid ungulates widely kept as livestock. They are prominent modern members of the subfamily Bovinae and the most widespread species of the genus '' Bos''. Mature female cattle are calle ...
and oxen scapulae were much more commonly used in this period and were often coupled with etched
plastrons.
The
caches excavated yielded remnants of pig, sheep, cattle and deer scapulae, all of which possessed scorch marks, indicating their use within a divinatory context.
Additionally drill marks, where divots were carved into the shoulder blades, and etchings of Chinese characters were hallmarks of Shang dynasty oracle bones.

These drilled holes within a specimen would be accompanied by carbonised fissures, thus the theory that the hollows were created to induce cracking when heated was postulated.
Importantly, the royal court diviners were not the exclusive divination entity within the mid to late Shang period. Inscriptions carved into specimen's detail associated to King Zhou who were under the employ of local nobility.
These diviners served the lower echelons of society, providing prognostication for agricultural and health purposes.
Differences between the divining specimens used by the royal court and associated diviners included more elaborate aesthetic detail, where the edge of the scapula was polished, drilled hollows were symmetrically paired, and attendant chisel marks were etched.
Associate diviners attending to the public interpreted much simpler oracle bones.
Notably, specimens found outside the region spanning the capital city of
Anyang
Anyang ( zh, s=安阳, t=安陽; ) is a prefecture-level city in Henan, China. Geographical coordinates are 35° 41'~ 36° 21' north latitude and 113° 38'~ 114° 59' east longitude. The northernmost city in Henan, Anyang borders Puyang to the eas ...
were far less intricate, with unfinished surfaces and fewer etched characters.
Mongolia
Radiocarbon
Carbon-14, C-14, C or radiocarbon, is a radioactive isotope of carbon with an atomic nucleus containing 6 protons and 8 neutrons. Its presence in organic matter is the basis of the radiocarbon dating method pioneered by Willard Libby and coll ...
analysis of scapulae found at sites in Fuhegoumen,
Inner Mongolia
Inner Mongolia, officially the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, is an Autonomous regions of China, autonomous region of China. Its border includes two-thirds of the length of China's China–Mongolia border, border with the country of Mongolia. ...
, have dated the remains to approximately 3322 BC, making the
Mongolian people one of the earliest users of pyromantic scapulimancy.
Other early discovery of scapulimancy in regions in northern China include Zhaizita in nearby Jungar Banner, Fujiamen in
Wushan, Gansu province, and Xiawanggang in
Xichuan, Henan province that is associated with the late Yangshao culture. The proximity of Inner Mongolia to other regions of northern China has led to some theories speculating the spread of scapulimantic rituals across Eastern Asia.
Scapulimancy practices in the Mongolian Plateau have been documented by researchers with reference to divination
manuals.
These diviners would refer to these manuals to guide their interpretation of the animal remains, often to facilitate them acting as a bridge between the spirit worlds.
However, the manual was not leveraged by shamans as a defined list of direct outcomes, but rather aided in guiding diviner interpretations through using a shared system of belief.
Preparation methods involved a scorching ceremony, where the animal scapulae were washed, then placed onto a fire where incantations were chanted.
This process purified the bone, making it suitable for interpretation by the shaman.
The formation of cracks on different planes of the scapulae correlated to outcomes outlined in the sacred manuals.
Other signs which would guide shamans was the colour of the scapula, such as a yellowing, or a bone-white colour.
Diviner's reputations would depend on their ability to decipher the signs presented to them. The role of the divining shamans remedial, where negative readings of one's fate would see a suggested ritual which could be performed to help temper the spirits.
Diviners were held in significant social regard due to their role as spirit mediums Mongolian people one of the earliest documented users of pyromantic scapulimancy.
Europe
Scapulimancy is also a method of divination among
Greek
Greek may refer to:
Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe:
*Greeks, an ethnic group
*Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family
**Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor of all kno ...
and
Serb
The Serbs ( sr-Cyr, Срби, Srbi, ) are a South Slavic ethnic group native to Southeastern Europe who share a common Serbian ancestry, culture, history, and language. They primarily live in Serbia, Kosovo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia ...
farmers, even today. It is probably of extremely ancient origin. More recently, references are found in the memoirs of several warriors who fought during the
Greek War of Independence
The Greek War of Independence, also known as the Greek Revolution or the Greek Revolution of 1821, was a successful war of independence by Greek revolutionaries against the Ottoman Empire between 1821 and 1829. In 1826, the Greeks were assisted ...
. After feasts with roast
lambs or
kids, anyone who knew how to "read" a scapula would clean it of any remaining flesh and, lifting it up to the light, interpret the various shadowy bits showing on the transparent part of the bone. A clear scapula was a good omen. Shadowy bits were used to predict the outcome of a battle on the morrow, whether death or survival.
In
Renaissance magic, scapulimancy (known as "spatulamancy") was classified as one of the seven "forbidden arts", along with
necromancy
Necromancy () is the practice of Magic (paranormal), magic involving communication with the Death, dead by Evocation, summoning their spirits as Ghost, apparitions or Vision (spirituality), visions for the purpose of divination; imparting the ...
,
geomancy
Geomancy, a compound of Greek roots denoting "earth divination", was originally used to mean methods of divination that interpret geographic features, markings on the ground, or the patterns formed by soil, rock (geology), rocks, or sand. Its d ...
,
aeromancy,
pyromancy, chiromancy (
palmistry
Palmistry is the pseudoscientific practice of fortune-telling through the study of the palm. Also known as palm reading, chiromancy, chirology or cheirology, the practice is found all over the world, with numerous cultural variations. Those w ...
), and
hydromancy.
Middle East
Arabic world
Existing literature regarding
Arabic
Arabic (, , or , ) is a Central Semitic languages, Central Semitic language of the Afroasiatic languages, Afroasiatic language family spoken primarily in the Arab world. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) assigns lang ...
scapulimancy are sparse, with few translated into Latin and English available to be used as sources. Paragraphs from Arabic scripts have been contextualised and translated to help in understanding the use of scapulimancy in the Arabic world.
A
Florentine manuscript dated to the 1600s is currently the most referenced source in terms of incorporating a compiled translation of Arabic works into Latin in ''Bibliotheca Laurenziana'', a book detailing
magic, summoning
prayers, recipes for potent
salves and divination.
[
The text attributes the practice of scapulimancy in medieval Western European civilisations to the migration of traditions and ideas from the Arabic world, noting the influence of Muslim Spain.][ Trade across the ]Silk Road
The Silk Road was a network of Asian trade routes active from the second century BCE until the mid-15th century. Spanning over , it played a central role in facilitating economic, cultural, political, and religious interactions between the ...
has been proposed as a medium through which scapulimantic practices have pervaded into medieval European traditions from merchant trade with Arabic nomads.
Harvesting the scapulae from live animals involved decapitating the animal with a sword
A sword is an edged and bladed weapons, edged, bladed weapon intended for manual cutting or thrusting. Its blade, longer than a knife or dagger, is attached to a hilt and can be straight or curved. A thrusting sword tends to have a straighter ...
, without it seeing the weapon being swung, after which the animal was boiled until the flesh separated from the bones. The scapulae were extracted and wrapped in linen cloth and placed beneath the pillow of the diviner before they slept. The reading could only be performed the following day after this procedure had taken place.
Reading of the scapula was divided into two sections: the inside blade and the external features. The internal plane of the scapula has a prominent spine
Spine or spinal may refer to:
Science Biology
* Spinal column, also known as the backbone
* Dendritic spine, a small membranous protrusion from a neuron's dendrite
* Thorns, spines, and prickles, needle-like structures in plants
* Spine (zoology), ...
running through and was used for interpreting familial issues regarding fertility and prosperity. The external border of the scapula was used when questions regarding political or public events were being asked of the diviner.
Africa
South Africa
Zulu diviners, known as izangomas, have traditionally used bone reading in conjunction with other rituals involving herbal
A herbal is a book containing the names and descriptions of plants, usually with information on their medicinal, Herbal tonic, tonic, culinary, toxic, hallucinatory, aromatic, or Magic (paranormal), magical powers, and the legends associated wi ...
concoctions to communicate with spirits and those who have passed. Treated bones are placed into the medicine, with the izangoma interpreting aspects of the scapula which float above the liquid as spiritual communication. People within the community will seek out an izangoma if they would like personal questions answered regarding either themselves or to communicate with the deceased. The practice of scapulimancy and wider bone reading rituals are still used by witch doctors in many African communities, incorporated into a wider array of traditional healing ceremonies.
See also
*
*
*
*
*
References
Sources
* Keightley, David N. (1978). ''Sources of Shang History: The Oracle-Bone Inscriptions of Bronze Age China.'' University of California Press, Berkeley. Large format hardcover, (out of print); A ppbk 2nd edition (1985) is still in print.
* Andrée, R. (1906) Scapulimantia. In ''Anthropological Papers in Honour of Franz Boas'', edited by Berthold Laufer, pp. 143–165.
* Eisenberger, Elmar Jakob (1938). Das Wahrsagen aus dem Schulterblatt. ''Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie'' 35, pp. 49–116.
* Philippi, Donald L. (1968). ''Kojiki.'' University of Tokyo Press, Tokyo. p. 52.
{{Divination
Archaeology of China
Chinese inventions
Divination
Japanese inventions