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shahada The ''Shahada'' (Arabic: ٱلشَّهَادَةُ , "the testimony"), also transliterated as ''Shahadah'', is an Islamic oath and creed, and one of the Five Pillars of Islam and part of the Adhan. It reads: "I bear witness that there is ...
'') , national_anthem =
" "
"Chant of the Saudi Nation"
, image_map = , capital =
Riyadh Riyadh (, ar, الرياض, 'ar-Riyāḍ, Literal translation, lit.: 'The Gardens' Najdi Arabic, Najdi pronunciation: ), formerly known as Hajr al-Yamamah, is the capital and largest city of Saudi Arabia. It is also the capital of the Riyad ...
, coordinates = , largest_city = Riyadh , official_languages =
Arabic Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C. E.Watson; Walte ...
, regional_languages = , religion = , demonym = , government_type = Unitary Islamic
absolute monarchy Absolute monarchy (or Absolutism as a doctrine) is a form of monarchy in which the monarch rules in their own right or power. In an absolute monarchy, the king or queen is by no means limited and has absolute power, though a limited constituti ...
, leader_title1 =
King King is the title given to a male monarch in a variety of contexts. The female equivalent is queen, which title is also given to the consort of a king. *In the context of prehistory, antiquity and contemporary indigenous peoples, the ...
, leader_name1 = Salman , leader_title2 =
Crown Prince A crown prince or hereditary prince is the heir apparent to the throne in a royal or imperial monarchy. The female form of the title is crown princess, which may refer either to an heiress apparent or, especially in earlier times, to the wife ...
and
Prime Minister A prime minister, premier or chief of cabinet is the head of the cabinet and the leader of the ministers in the executive branch of government, often in a parliamentary or semi-presidential system. Under those systems, a prime minister is ...
, leader_name2 =
Mohammed bin Salman Mohammed bin Salman Al Saud ( ar, محمد بن سلمان آل سعود, translit=Muḥammad bin Salmān Āl Su‘ūd; born 31 August 1985), colloquially known by his initials MBS or MbS, is Crown Prince and Prime Minister of Saudi Arabia. ...
, legislature = none , sovereignty_type =
Establishment Establishment may refer to: * The Establishment, a dominant group or elite that controls a polity or an organization * The Establishment (club), a 1960s club in London, England * The Establishment (Pakistan), political terminology for the military ...
, established_event1 =
Emirate of Diriyah The Emirate of Diriyah (), also known as the First Saudi State, was established in February 1727 (1139 AH). In 1744, the emir of Najdi town called Diriyah Muhammad bin Saud and the religious leader Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab formed an allianc ...
, established_date1 = 1727 , established_event2 =
Emirate of Nejd The Emirate of Nejd or Imamate of Nejd was the Second Saudi State, existing between 1824 and 1891 in Nejd, the regions of Riyadh and Ha'il of what is now Saudi Arabia. Saudi rule was restored to central and eastern Arabia after the Emirate of D ...
, established_date2 = 1824 , established_event3 =
Emirate of Riyadh The Emirate of Riyadh Madawi Al-Rasheed. ''A History of Saudi Arabia''. Cambridge, England, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2002. Pp. 40. was the first iteration of the Third Saudi State from 1902 to 1913. J. A. Hammerton. ''Peoples Of All Nati ...
, established_date3 = 13 January 1902 , established_event4 = Unification , established_date4 = 23 September 1932 , established_event5 = Admitted to the
United Nations The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization whose stated purposes are to maintain international peace and security, develop friendly relations among nations, achieve international cooperation, and be a centre for harmonizi ...
, established_date5 = 24 October 1945 , established_event6 = Current constitution , established_date6 = 31 January 1992 , area_km2 = 2,149,690 , area_rank = 12th , area_sq_mi = 830,000 , percent_water = 0.0 , population_census = 32,175,224 , population_census_year = 2022 , population_census_rank = 46th , population_density_km2 = 15 , population_density_sq_mi = 38.8 , population_density_rank = 174th , GDP_PPP = $2.354 trillion , GDP_PPP_year = 2024 , GDP_PPP_rank = 17th , GDP_PPP_per_capita = $70,333 , GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 15th , GDP_nominal = $1.106 trillion , GDP_nominal_year = 2024 , GDP_nominal_rank = 19th , GDP_nominal_per_capita = $33,040 , GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 34th , Gini = 45.9 , Gini_year = 2013 , Gini_change = steady , Gini_ref = , Gini_rank = , HDI = 0.875 , HDI_year = 2022 , HDI_change = increase , HDI_ref = , HDI_rank = 40th , currency =
Saudi riyal The Saudi riyal ( ar, ريال سعودي ') is the currency of Saudi Arabia. It is abbreviated as or SAR ''(Saudi Arabian Riyal)''. It is subdivided into 100 halalas ( ar, هللة '). The currency is pegged to the US dollar at a constant rate ...
(SR) , currency_code = SAR , time_zone = AST , utc_offset = +3 , date_format = dd/mm/yyyy ( AH) , drives_on = Right , calling_code = +966 , cctld = , today = , ethnic_groups = 90%
Arab The Arabs (singular: Arab; singular ar, عَرَبِيٌّ, DIN 31635: , , plural ar, عَرَب, DIN 31635, DIN 31635: , Arabic pronunciation: ), also known as the Arab people, are an ethnic group mainly inhabiting the Arab world in Wester ...

10%
Afro-Arab Afro-Arabs are Arabs of full or partial Black African descent. These include populations within mainly the Sudanese, Emiratis, Yemenis, Saudis, Omanis, Sahrawis, Mauritanians, Algerians, Egyptians and Moroccans, with considerably long estab ...

(for Saudi citizens only) , ethnic_groups_ref = , ethnic_groups_year = 2014 , religion_ref = , , religion_year = 2010 Saudi Arabia, officially the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA),, is a country in
Western Asia Western Asia, West Asia, or Southwest Asia, is the westernmost subregion of the larger geographical region of Asia, as defined by some academics, UN bodies and other institutions. It is almost entirely a part of the Middle East, and includes A ...
. It covers the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula and has a land area of about , making it the fifth-largest country in
Asia Asia (, ) is one of the world's most notable geographical regions, which is either considered a continent in its own right or a subcontinent of Eurasia, which shares the continental landmass of Afro-Eurasia with Africa. Asia covers an ...
and the largest in the
Middle East The Middle East ( ar, الشرق الأوسط, ISO 233: ) is a geopolitical region commonly encompassing Arabia (including the Arabian Peninsula and Bahrain), Asia Minor (Asian part of Turkey except Hatay Province), East Thrace (Europ ...
. It is bordered by the
Red Sea The Red Sea ( ar, البحر الأحمر - بحر القلزم, translit=Modern: al-Baḥr al-ʾAḥmar, Medieval: Baḥr al-Qulzum; or ; Coptic: ⲫⲓⲟⲙ ⲛ̀ϩⲁϩ ''Phiom Enhah'' or ⲫⲓⲟⲙ ⲛ̀ϣⲁⲣⲓ ''Phiom ǹšari''; ...
to the west;
Jordan Jordan ( ar, الأردن; tr. ' ), officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan,; tr. ' is a country in Western Asia. It is situated at the crossroads of Asia, Africa, and Europe, within the Levant region, on the East Bank of the Jordan Ri ...
,
Iraq Iraq,; ku, عێراق, translit=Êraq officially the Republic of Iraq, '; ku, کۆماری عێراق, translit=Komarî Êraq is a country in Western Asia. It is bordered by Turkey to Iraq–Turkey border, the north, Iran to Iran–Iraq ...
, and
Kuwait Kuwait (; ar, الكويت ', or ), officially the State of Kuwait ( ar, دولة الكويت '), is a country in Western Asia. It is situated in the northern edge of Eastern Arabia at the tip of the Persian Gulf, bordering Iraq to the no ...
to the north; the
Persian Gulf The Persian Gulf ( fa, خلیج فارس, translit=xalij-e fârs, lit=Gulf of Fars, ), sometimes called the ( ar, اَلْخَلِيْجُ ٱلْعَرَبِيُّ, Al-Khalīj al-ˁArabī), is a mediterranean sea in Western Asia. The bo ...
,
Bahrain Bahrain ( ; ; ar, البحرين, al-Bahrayn, locally ), officially the Kingdom of Bahrain, ' is an island country in Western Asia. It is situated on the Persian Gulf, and comprises a small archipelago made up of 50 natural islands and an ...
,
Qatar Qatar (, ; ar, قطر, Qaṭar ; local vernacular pronunciation: ), officially the State of Qatar,) is a country in Western Asia. It occupies the Qatar Peninsula on the northeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula in the Middle East; it ...
and the
United Arab Emirates The United Arab Emirates (UAE; ar, اَلْإِمَارَات الْعَرَبِيَة الْمُتَحِدَة ), or simply the Emirates ( ar, الِْإمَارَات ), is a country in Western Asia ( The Middle East). It is located at ...
to the east;
Oman Oman ( ; ar, عُمَان ' ), officially the Sultanate of Oman ( ar, سلْطنةُ عُمان ), is an Arabian country located in southwestern Asia. It is situated on the southeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula, and spans the mouth of ...
to the southeast; and
Yemen Yemen (; ar, ٱلْيَمَن, al-Yaman), officially the Republic of Yemen,, ) is a country in Western Asia. It is situated on the southern end of the Arabian Peninsula, and borders Saudi Arabia to the north and Oman to the northeast an ...
to the south. The
Gulf of Aqaba The Gulf of Aqaba ( ar, خَلِيجُ ٱلْعَقَبَةِ, Khalīj al-ʿAqabah) or Gulf of Eilat ( he, מפרץ אילת, Mifrátz Eilát) is a large gulf at the northern tip of the Red Sea, east of the Sinai Peninsula and west of the Arabi ...
in the northwest separates Saudi Arabia from
Egypt Egypt ( ar, مصر , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia via a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Med ...
and
Israel Israel (; he, יִשְׂרָאֵל, ; ar, إِسْرَائِيل, ), officially the State of Israel ( he, מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל, label=none, translit=Medīnat Yīsrāʾēl; ), is a country in Western Asia. It is situated ...
. Saudi Arabia is the only country with a coastline along both the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, and most of its terrain consists of arid desert, lowland, steppe, and
mountains A mountain is an elevated portion of the Earth's crust, generally with steep sides that show significant exposed bedrock. Although definitions vary, a mountain may differ from a plateau in having a limited summit area, and is usually higher t ...
. The capital and largest city is
Riyadh Riyadh (, ar, الرياض, 'ar-Riyāḍ, Literal translation, lit.: 'The Gardens' Najdi Arabic, Najdi pronunciation: ), formerly known as Hajr al-Yamamah, is the capital and largest city of Saudi Arabia. It is also the capital of the Riyad ...
; other major cities include Jeddah and the two holiest cities in Islam,
Mecca Mecca (; officially Makkah al-Mukarramah, commonly shortened to Makkah ()) is a city and administrative center of the Mecca Province of Saudi Arabia, and the holiest city in Islam. It is inland from Jeddah on the Red Sea, in a narrow val ...
and
Medina Medina,, ', "the radiant city"; or , ', (), "the city" officially Al Madinah Al Munawwarah (, , Turkish: Medine-i Münevvere) and also commonly simplified as Madīnah or Madinah (, ), is the second-holiest city in Islam, and the capital of the ...
. With a population of almost 32.2 million, Saudi Arabia is the fourth most populous country in the
Arab world The Arab world ( ar, اَلْعَالَمُ الْعَرَبِيُّ '), formally the Arab homeland ( '), also known as the Arab nation ( '), the Arabsphere, or the Arab states, refers to a vast group of countries, mainly located in Western A ...
.
Pre-Islamic Arabia Pre-Islamic Arabia ( ar, شبه الجزيرة العربية قبل الإسلام) refers to the Arabian Peninsula before the emergence of Islam in 610 CE. Some of the settled communities developed into distinctive civilizations. Information ...
, the territory that constitutes modern-day Saudi Arabia, was the site of several ancient cultures and civilizations; the
prehistory of Saudi Arabia The history of Saudi Arabia as a nation state began with the emergence of the Al Saud dynasty in central Arabia in 1727 and the subsequent establishment of the Emirate of Diriyah. Pre-Islamic Arabia, the territory that constitutes modern Sa ...
shows some of the earliest traces of human activity outside Africa. Islam, the world's second-largest religion, emerged in what is now Saudi Arabia in the early seventh century. Islamic prophet
Muhammad Muhammad ( ar, مُحَمَّد;  570 – 8 June 632 CE) was an Arab religious, social, and political leader and the founder of Islam. According to Islamic doctrine, he was a prophet divinely inspired to preach and confirm the monot ...
united the population of the Arabian Peninsula and created a single Islamic religious polity. Following his death in 632, his followers expanded Muslim rule beyond Arabia, conquering territories in
North Africa North Africa, or Northern Africa is a region encompassing the northern portion of the African continent. There is no singularly accepted scope for the region, and it is sometimes defined as stretching from the Atlantic shores of Mauritania in t ...
,
Central Central is an adjective usually referring to being in the center of some place or (mathematical) object. Central may also refer to: Directions and generalised locations * Central Africa, a region in the centre of Africa continent, also known a ...
,
South Asia South Asia is the southern subregion of Asia, which is defined in both geographical and ethno-cultural terms. The region consists of the countries of Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka.;;;;; ...
and
Iberia The Iberian Peninsula (), ** * Aragonese and Occitan: ''Peninsula Iberica'' ** ** * french: Péninsule Ibérique * mwl, Península Eibérica * eu, Iberiar penintsula also known as Iberia, is a peninsula A peninsula (; ) is a la ...
within decades. Arab dynasties originating from modern-day Saudi Arabia founded the
Rashidun The Rashidun Caliphs ( ar, الخلفاء الراشدون, translit=al-Khulafāʾ al-Rāshidūn, ), often simply called the Rashidun, are the first four caliphs (lit.: 'successors') who led the Muslim community following the death of the Isl ...
(632–661),
Umayyad The Umayyad Caliphate (661–750 CE; , ; ar, ٱلْخِلَافَة ٱلْأُمَوِيَّة, al-Khilāfah al-ʾUmawīyah) was the second of the four major caliphates established after the death of Muhammad. The caliphate was ruled by the ...
(661–750),
Abbasid The Abbasid Caliphate ( or ; ar, الْخِلَافَةُ الْعَبَّاسِيَّة, ') was the third caliphate to succeed the Islamic prophet Muhammad. It was founded by a dynasty descended from Muhammad's uncle, Abbas ibn Abdul-Muttal ...
(750–1517), and
Fatimid The Fatimid Caliphate was an Ismaili Shi'a Shīʿa Islam or Shīʿīsm is the second-largest Islamic schools and branches, branch of Islam. It holds that the Prophets and messengers in Islam, Islamic prophet Muhammad in Islam, Muh ...
(909–1171) caliphates, as well as numerous other dynasties in Asia,
Africa Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent, after Asia in both cases. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of Earth's total surface area ...
, and
Europe Europe is a large peninsula conventionally considered a continent in its own right because of its great physical size and the weight of its history and traditions. Europe is also considered a subcontinent of Eurasia and it is located enti ...
. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia was founded in 1932 by King Abdulaziz (also known as
Ibn Saud Abdulaziz bin Abdul Rahman Al Saud ( ar, عبد العزيز بن عبد الرحمن آل سعود, ʿAbd al ʿAzīz bin ʿAbd ar Raḥman Āl Suʿūd; 15 January 1875Ibn Saud's birth year has been a source of debate. It is generally accepted ...
), who united the regions of Hejaz,
Najd Najd ( ar, نَجْدٌ, ), or the Nejd, forms the geographic center of Saudi Arabia, accounting for about a third of the country's modern population and, since the Emirate of Diriyah, acting as the base for all unification campaigns by the ...
, parts of
Eastern Arabia Eastern Arabia, historically known as al-Baḥrayn ( ar, البحرين) until the 18th century, is a region stretched from Basra to Khasab along the Persian Gulf coast and included parts of modern-day Bahrain, Kuwait, Eastern Saudi Arabia, Unite ...
(Al-Ahsa) and
South Arabia South Arabia () is a historical region that consists of the southern region of the Arabian Peninsula in Western Asia, mainly centered in what is now the Republic of Yemen, yet it has also historically included Najran, Jizan, Al-Bahah, and ' ...
(
'Asir The ʿAsir Region ( ar, عَسِيرٌ, ʿAsīr, lit=difficult) is a region of Saudi Arabia located in the southwest of the country that is named after the ʿAsīr tribe. It has an area of and an estimated population of 2,211,875 (2017). It is ...
) into a single state through a series of conquests, beginning in 1902 with the capture of Riyadh, the ancestral home of his family, the
House of Saud The House of Saud ( ar, آل سُعُود, ʾĀl Suʿūd ) is the ruling royal family of Saudi Arabia. It is composed of the descendants of Muhammad bin Saud, founder of the Emirate of Diriyah, known as the First Saudi state (1727–1818), ...
. Saudi Arabia has since been an
absolute monarchy Absolute monarchy (or Absolutism as a doctrine) is a form of monarchy in which the monarch rules in their own right or power. In an absolute monarchy, the king or queen is by no means limited and has absolute power, though a limited constituti ...
governed by an authoritarian regime without public input. In its Basic Law, Saudi Arabia defines itself as a sovereign Arab
Islamic state An Islamic state is a state that has a form of government based on Islamic law (sharia). As a term, it has been used to describe various historical polities and theories of governance in the Islamic world. As a translation of the Arabic term ...
with Islam as its official religion and
Arabic Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C. E.Watson; Walte ...
as its official language. The ultraconservative
Wahhabi Wahhabism ( ar, ٱلْوَهَّابِيَةُ, translit=al-Wahhābiyyah) is a Sunni Islamic revivalist and fundamentalist movement associated with the reformist doctrines of the 18th-century Arabian Islamic scholar, theologian, preacher, ...
religious movement within Sunni Islam was the prevailing political and cultural force in the country until the 2000s. Tripp, ''Culture Shock'', 2003: p. 14 Malbouisson, p. 23 The Saudi government has attracted criticism for various policies such as its intervention in the Yemeni Civil War, alleged sponsorship of terrorism, and widespread human rights abuses. Saudi Arabia is considered both a
regional In geography, regions, otherwise referred to as zones, lands or territories, are areas that are broadly divided by physical characteristics (physical geography), human impact characteristics (human geography), and the interaction of humanity and t ...
and
middle Middle or The Middle may refer to: * Centre (geometry), the point equally distant from the outer limits. Places * Middle (sheading), a subdivision of the Isle of Man * Middle Bay (disambiguation) * Middle Brook (disambiguation) * Middle Creek (d ...
power. Since
petroleum Petroleum, also known as crude oil, or simply oil, is a naturally occurring yellowish-black liquid mixture of mainly hydrocarbons, and is found in geological formations. The name ''petroleum'' covers both naturally occurring unprocessed crude ...
was discovered in the country in 1938, the kingdom has become the world's third-largest oil producer and leading oil exporter, controlling the world's second-largest oil reserves and the sixth-largest gas reserves. Saudi Arabia is categorized as a
World Bank high-income economy A high-income economy is defined by the World Bank as a nation with a gross national income per capita of US$12,696 or more in 2020, calculated using the Atlas method. While the term "high-income" is often used interchangeably with "First World" ...
and is the only Arab country among the
G20 The G20 or Group of Twenty is an intergovernmental forum comprising 19 countries and the European Union (EU). It works to address major issues related to the global economy, such as international financial stability, climate change mitigation ...
major economies. The Saudi economy is the largest in the Middle East and the world's nineteenth largest by nominal GDP and seventeenth largest by PPP. Ranking very high in the
Human Development Index The Human Development Index (HDI) is a statistic composite index of life expectancy, Education Index, education (mean years of schooling completed and expected years of schooling upon entering the Educational system, education system), ...
, Saudi Arabia offers tuition-free university education, no personal income tax, and free universal health care. With its dependency on foreign labour, Saudi Arabia has the world's third-largest immigrant population. Saudi Arabians are among the world's youngest people, with approximately half being under 25 years old. Saudi Arabia is an active and founding member of the
Gulf Cooperation Council The Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf ( ar, مجلس التعاون لدول العربية الخليج ), also known as the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC; ar, مجلس التعاون الخليجي), is a regional, inter ...
,
United Nations The United Nations (UN) is an intergovernmental organization whose stated purposes are to maintain international peace and security, develop friendly relations among nations, achieve international cooperation, and be a centre for harmonizi ...
,
Organisation of Islamic Cooperation An organization or organisation (Commonwealth English; see spelling differences), is an entity—such as a company, an institution, or an association—comprising one or more people and having a particular purpose. The word is derived fr ...
, Arab League, and
OPEC The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC, ) is a cartel of countries. Founded on 14 September 1960 in Baghdad by the first five members (Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Venezuela), it has, since 1965, been headquart ...
, as well as a dialogue partner of the
Shanghai Cooperation Organisation russian: Шанхайская Организация Сотрудничества , image = , caption = , logo = SCO logo.svg , logo_size = 160px , map = Shanghai Cooperati ...
.


Etymology

Following the amalgamation of the
Kingdom of Hejaz The Hashemite Kingdom of Hejaz ( ar, المملكة الحجازية الهاشمية, ''Al-Mamlakah al-Ḥijāziyyah Al-Hāshimiyyah'') was a state in the Hejaz region in the Middle East that included the western portion of the Arabian Peninsu ...
and
Nejd Najd ( ar, نَجْدٌ, ), or the Nejd, forms the geographic center of Saudi Arabia, accounting for about a third of the country's modern population and, since the Emirate of Diriyah, acting as the base for all unification campaigns by the H ...
, Abdulaziz bin Saud issued a royal decree on 23 September 1932 naming the new state ''al-Mamlaka al-ʿArabiyya as-Suʿūdiyya'' (
Arabic Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C. E.Watson; Walte ...
), which is normally translated as "the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia" in English, but literally means "the Saudi Arab Kingdom", or "the Saudi Kingdom of Arabia" (compare the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan). The word "Saudi" is derived from the element ''as-Suʿūdīyya'' in the Arabic name of the country, which is a type of adjective known as a ''
nisba The Arabic word nisba (; also transcribed as ''nisbah'' or ''nisbat'') may refer to: * Nisba, a suffix used to form adjectives in Arabic grammar, or the adjective resulting from this formation **comparatively, in Afro-Asiatic: see Afroasiatic_lan ...
,'' formed from the dynastic name of the Saudi royal family, the
Al Saud The House of Saud ( ar, آل سُعُود, ʾĀl Suʿūd ) is the ruling royal family of Saudi Arabia. It is composed of the descendants of Muhammad bin Saud, founder of the Emirate of Diriyah, known as the First Saudi state (1727–1818), a ...
( ar, آل سعود). Its inclusion expresses the view that the country is the personal possession of the royal family. ''Al Saud'' is an
Arabic name Arabic language names have historically been based on a long naming system. Many people from the Arabic-speaking and also Muslim countries have not had given/middle/ family names but rather a chain of names. This system remains in use throughout ...
formed by adding the word ''Al'', meaning "family of" or "House of", to the personal name of an ancestor. In the case of Al Saud, this is
Saud ibn Muhammad ibn Muqrin Saud bin Muhammad Al Muqrin ( ar, سعود بن محمد آل مقرن ''Suʿūd ibn Muḥammad Āl Muqrin''; 1640–1726) was the eponymous ancestor of the House of Saud, otherwise known as the Al Saud. Biography Saud was from the family of Al ...
, the father of the dynasty's 18th-century founder,
Muhammad bin Saud Muhammad bin Saud Al Muqrin ( ''Muḥammad bin Suʿūd Āl Muqrin''; 1687–1765), also known as Ibn Saud, was the emir of Diriyah and is considered the founder of the First Saudi State and the Saud dynasty, which are named for his father, Sau ...
.


History


Prehistory

There is evidence that human habitation in the Arabian Peninsula dates back to about years ago. A 2011 study found that the first modern humans to spread east across Asia left
Africa Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent, after Asia in both cases. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 6% of Earth's total surface area ...
about years ago across the
Bab-el-Mandeb The Bab-el-Mandeb (Arabic: , , ) is a strait between Yemen on the Arabian Peninsula, and Djibouti and Eritrea in the Horn of Africa. It connects the Red Sea to the Gulf of Aden. Name The strait derives its name from the dangers attend ...
connecting the
Horn of Africa The Horn of Africa (HoA), also known as the Somali Peninsula, is a large peninsula and geopolitical region in East Africa.Robert Stock, ''Africa South of the Sahara, Second Edition: A Geographical Interpretation'', (The Guilford Press; 2004), ...
and Arabia. The Arabian Peninsula is regarded as central to the understanding of evolution and dispersals of Man. Arabia underwent an extreme environmental fluctuation in the Quaternary that led to profound evolutionary and demographic changes. Arabia has a rich
Lower Paleolithic The Lower Paleolithic (or Lower Palaeolithic) is the earliest subdivision of the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age. It spans the time from around 3 million years ago when the first evidence for stone tool production and use by hominins appears in ...
record, and the quantity of
Oldowan The Oldowan (or Mode I) was a widespread stone tool archaeological industry (style) in prehistory. These early tools were simple, usually made with one or a few flakes chipped off with another stone. Oldowan tools were used during the Lower ...
-like sites in the region indicate a significant role that Arabia had played in the early hominin colonization of Eurasia. In the
Neolithic The Neolithic period, or New Stone Age, is an Old World archaeological period and the final division of the Stone Age. It saw the Neolithic Revolution, a wide-ranging set of developments that appear to have arisen independently in several part ...
period, prominent cultures such as
Al-Magar Al-Magar was an advanced prehistoric civilization of the Neolithic whose epicenter lied in modern-day southwestern Najd in Saudi Arabia. Al-Magar is possibly the first civilizations in the world where widespread domestication of animals occurred, ...
, whose centre lay in modern-day southwestern Najd, flourished. Al-Magar could be considered a "Neolithic Revolution" in human knowledge and handicraft skills. The culture is characterized as being one of the world's first to involve the widespread domestication of animals, particularly the horse, during the Neolithic period. Al-Magar statues were made from local stone, and it seems that the statues were fixed in a central building that might have had a significant role in the social and religious life of the inhabitants. In November 2017, hunting scenes showing images of most likely domesticated dogs (resembling the
Canaan Dog The Canaan Dog is the oldest breed of pariah dog still existing and abundant across the Middle East. It can be found in Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon and the Sinai Peninsula, and these, or dogs nearly identical, were also found in Iraq and ...
) and wearing leashes were discovered in Shuwaymis, a hilly region of northwestern Saudi Arabia. These rock engravings date back more than years, making them the earliest depictions of dogs in the world. At the end of the 4th millennium BC, Arabia entered the
Bronze Age The Bronze Age is a historic period, lasting approximately from 3300 BC to 1200 BC, characterized by the use of bronze, the presence of writing in some areas, and other early features of urban civilization. The Bronze Age is the second pri ...
; metals were widely used, and the period was characterized by its 2 m high burials which were simultaneously followed by the existence of numerous temples that included many free-standing sculptures originally painted with red colours. In May 2021, archaeologists announced that a -year-old
Acheulean Acheulean (; also Acheulian and Mode II), from the French ''acheuléen'' after the type site of Saint-Acheul, is an archaeological industry of stone tool manufacture characterized by the distinctive oval and pear-shaped " hand axes" associat ...
site named An Nasim in the
Hail region Hail is a form of solid precipitation. It is distinct from ice pellets (American English "sleet"), though the two are often confused. It consists of balls or irregular lumps of ice, each of which is called a hailstone. Ice pellets generally fal ...
could be the oldest human habitation site in northern Saudi Arabia. 354 artefacts, including hand axes and stone tools, provided information about tool-making traditions of the earliest living man inhabited south-west Asia.
Paleolithic The Paleolithic or Palaeolithic (), also called the Old Stone Age (from Greek: παλαιός '' palaios'', "old" and λίθος ''lithos'', "stone"), is a period in human prehistory that is distinguished by the original development of stone to ...
artefacts are similar to material remains uncovered at the Acheulean sites in the
Nefud Desert An Nafud or Al-Nefud or The Nefud ( ar, صحراء النفود, ṣahrā' an-Nafūd) is a desert in the northern part of the Arabian Peninsula at , occupying a great oval depression. It is long and wide, with an area of . The Nafud is an erg, ...
.


Pre-Islamic

The earliest sedentary culture in Saudi Arabia dates back to the
Ubaid period The Ubaid period (c. 6500–3700 BC) is a prehistoric period of Mesopotamia. The name derives from Tell al-'Ubaid where the earliest large excavation of Ubaid period material was conducted initially in 1919 by Henry Hall and later by Leonard Woo ...
at
Dosariyah Dosariyah is an archeological site in the Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia, dating to the late 6th and early 5th millennium BCE. The spectrum of archaeological remains relate the site to the Arabian Neolithic. The earliest samples of Ubaid style p ...
. Climatic change and the onset of aridity may have brought about the end of this phase of settlement, as little archaeological evidence exists from the succeeding millennium. The settlement of the region picks up again in the period of
Dilmun Dilmun, or Telmun, (Sumerian: , later 𒉌𒌇(𒆠), ni.tukki = DILMUNki; ar, دلمون) was an ancient East Semitic-speaking civilization in Eastern Arabia mentioned from the 3rd millennium BC onwards. Based on contextual evidence, it was ...
in the early 3rd millennium. Known records from
Uruk Uruk, also known as Warka or Warkah, was an ancient city of Sumer (and later of Babylonia) situated east of the present bed of the Euphrates River on the dried-up ancient channel of the Euphrates east of modern Samawah, Al-Muthannā, Iraq.H ...
refer to a place called Dilmun, associated on several occasions with copper, and in later periods it was a source of imported woods in southern Mesopotamia. Scholars have suggested that Dilmun originally designated the eastern province of Saudi Arabia, notably linked with the major Dilmunite settlements of Umm an-Nussi and Umm ar-Ramadh in the interior and Tarout on the coast. It is likely that
Tarout Island Tārūt Island ( ar, جزيرة تاروت) is an island in the Persian Gulf belonging to the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia, connected by two causeways to Qatif. It is six kilometers from the coast, and is the longest island in the Persian Gu ...
was the main port and the capital of Dilmun. Mesopotamian inscribed clay tablets suggest that, in the early period of Dilmun, a form of hierarchical organized political structure existed. In 1966, an earthwork in Tarout exposed an ancient burial field that yielded a large statue dating to the Dilmunite period (mid 3rd millennium BC). The statue was locally made under the strong Mesopotamian influence on the artistic principle of Dilmun. By 2200 BC, the centre of Dilmun shifted for unknown reasons from Tarout and the Saudi Arabian mainland to the island of Bahrain, and a highly developed settlement emerged there, where a laborious temple complex and thousands of burial mounds dating to this period were discovered. By the late
Bronze Age The Bronze Age is a historic period, lasting approximately from 3300 BC to 1200 BC, characterized by the use of bronze, the presence of writing in some areas, and other early features of urban civilization. The Bronze Age is the second pri ...
, a historically recorded people and land (
Midian Midian (; he, מִדְיָן ''Mīḏyān'' ; ar, مَدْيَن, Madyan; grc-gre, Μαδιάμ, ''Madiam'') is a geographical place mentioned in the Hebrew Bible and Quran. William G. Dever states that biblical Midian was in the "northwest A ...
and the Midianites) in the north-western portion of Saudi Arabia are well-documented in the Bible. Centred in Tabouk, it stretched from
Wadi Arabah The Arabah, Araba or Aravah ( he, הָעֲרָבָה, ''hāʿĂrāḇā''; ar, وادي عربة, ''Wādī ʿAraba''; lit. "desolate and dry area") is a loosely defined geographic area south of the Dead Sea basin, which forms part of the borde ...
in the north to the area of al-Wejh in the south. The capital of Midian was Qurayyah,
The World around the Old Testament: The People and Places of the Ancient Near East
''. Baker Publishing Group; 2016. p. 462.
it consists of a large, fortified citadel encompassing 35 hectares and below it lies a walled settlement of 15 hectares. The city hosted as many as 12,000 inhabitants.Michael D. Coogan.
The Oxford History of the Biblical World
''. Oxford University Press; 2001. . p. 110.
The Bible recounts
Israel Israel (; he, יִשְׂרָאֵל, ; ar, إِسْرَائِيل, ), officially the State of Israel ( he, מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל, label=none, translit=Medīnat Yīsrāʾēl; ), is a country in Western Asia. It is situated ...
's two wars with Midian, somewhere in the early 11th century BC. Politically, the Midianites were described as having a decentralized structure headed by five kings (Evi, Rekem, Tsur, Hur, and Reba); the names appears to be toponyms of important Midianite settlements. It is common to view that Midian designated a confederation of tribes, the sedentary element settled in the Hijaz while its nomadic affiliates pastured and sometimes pillaged as far away as
Palestine __NOTOC__ Palestine may refer to: * State of Palestine, a state in Western Asia * Palestine (region), a geographic region in Western Asia * Palestinian territories, territories occupied by Israel since 1967, namely the West Bank (including East J ...
.Midian, Moab and Edom: The History and Archaeology of Late Bronze and Iron Age Jordan and North-West Arabia p. 163. The nomadic
Midianites Midian (; he, מִדְיָן ''Mīḏyān'' ; ar, مَدْيَن, Madyan; grc-gre, Μαδιάμ, ''Madiam'') is a geographical place mentioned in the Hebrew Bible and Quran. William G. Dever states that biblical Midian was in the "northwest A ...
were one of the earliest exploiters of the domestication of camels that enabled them to navigate through the harsh terrains of the region. At the end of the 7th century BC, an emerging kingdom appeared in north-western Arabia. It started as a sheikdom of Dedan, which developed into the kingdom of
Lihyan Lihyan ( ar, لحيان, ''Liḥyān''; Greek: Lechienoi), also called Dadān or Dedan was a powerful and highly organized ancient Arab kingdom that played a vital cultural and economic role in the north-western region of the Arabian Peninsul ...
.The State of Lihyan: A New Perspective – p. 192 During this period, Dedan transformed into a kingdom that encompassed a much wider domain. In the early 3rd century BC, with bustling economic activity between the south and north, Lihyan acquired large influence suitable to its strategic position on the caravan road. The Lihyanites ruled over a large domain from
Yathrib Medina,, ', "the radiant city"; or , ', (), "the city" officially Al Madinah Al Munawwarah (, , Turkish: Medine-i Münevvere) and also commonly simplified as Madīnah or Madinah (, ), is the second-holiest city in Islam, and the capital of the ...
in the south and parts of the Levant in the north. In antiquity, Gulf of Aqaba used to be called Gulf of Lihyan, a testimony to the extensive influence that Lihyan acquired.
Discovering Lehi
''. Cedar Fort; 1996. . p. 153.
The Lihyanites fell into the hands of the
Nabataeans The Nabataeans or Nabateans (; Nabataean Aramaic: , , vocalized as ; Arabic: , , singular , ; compare grc, Ναβαταῖος, translit=Nabataîos; la, Nabataeus) were an ancient Arab people who inhabited northern Arabia and the southern Lev ...
around 65 BC upon their seizure of Hegra then marching to
Tayma Tayma ( Taymanitic: , vocalized as: ; ar, تيماء, translit=Taymāʾ) or Tema Teman/Tyeman (Habakkuk 3:3) is a large oasis with a long history of settlement, located in northwestern Saudi Arabia at the point where the trade route between ...
, and to their capital Dedan in 9 BC. The Nabataeans ruled large portions of north Arabia until their domain was annexed by the
Roman Empire The Roman Empire ( la, Imperium Romanum ; grc-gre, Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων, Basileía tôn Rhōmaíōn) was the post- Republican period of ancient Rome. As a polity, it included large territorial holdings around the Medite ...
, which renamed it
Arabia Petraea Arabia Petraea or Petrea, also known as Rome's Arabian Province ( la, Provincia Arabia; ar, العربية البترائية; grc, Ἐπαρχία Πετραίας Ἀραβίας) or simply Arabia, was a frontier province of the Roman Empi ...
, and remained under the rule of the Romans until 630.


Middle Ages and rise of Islam

Shortly before the advent of Islam, apart from urban trading settlements (such as Mecca and Medina), much of what was to become Saudi Arabia was populated by nomadic pastoral tribal societies. The Islamic prophet Muhammad was born in Mecca in about 570 CE. In the early 7th century,
Muhammad Muhammad ( ar, مُحَمَّد;  570 – 8 June 632 CE) was an Arab religious, social, and political leader and the founder of Islam. According to Islamic doctrine, he was a prophet divinely inspired to preach and confirm the monot ...
united the various tribes of the peninsula and created a single Islamic religious polity. Following his death in 632, his followers expanded the territory under Muslim rule beyond Arabia, conquering territory in the Iberian Peninsula in the west to parts of Central and South Asia in the east in a matter of decades. Arabia became a more politically peripheral region of the Muslim world as the focus shifted to the newly conquered lands.
Arab The Arabs (singular: Arab; singular ar, عَرَبِيٌّ, DIN 31635: , , plural ar, عَرَب, DIN 31635, DIN 31635: , Arabic pronunciation: ), also known as the Arab people, are an ethnic group mainly inhabiting the Arab world in Wester ...
s originating from modern-day Saudi Arabia, the Hejaz in particular, founded the
Rashidun The Rashidun Caliphs ( ar, الخلفاء الراشدون, translit=al-Khulafāʾ al-Rāshidūn, ), often simply called the Rashidun, are the first four caliphs (lit.: 'successors') who led the Muslim community following the death of the Isl ...
(632–661),
Umayyad The Umayyad Caliphate (661–750 CE; , ; ar, ٱلْخِلَافَة ٱلْأُمَوِيَّة, al-Khilāfah al-ʾUmawīyah) was the second of the four major caliphates established after the death of Muhammad. The caliphate was ruled by the ...
(661–750),
Abbasid The Abbasid Caliphate ( or ; ar, الْخِلَافَةُ الْعَبَّاسِيَّة, ') was the third caliphate to succeed the Islamic prophet Muhammad. It was founded by a dynasty descended from Muhammad's uncle, Abbas ibn Abdul-Muttal ...
(750–1517), and the
Fatimid The Fatimid Caliphate was an Ismaili Shi'a Shīʿa Islam or Shīʿīsm is the second-largest Islamic schools and branches, branch of Islam. It holds that the Prophets and messengers in Islam, Islamic prophet Muhammad in Islam, Muh ...
(909–1171) caliphates. From the 10th century to the early 20th century, Mecca and Medina were under the control of a local Arab ruler known as the
Sharif of Mecca The Sharif of Mecca ( ar, شريف مكة, Sharīf Makkah) or Hejaz ( ar, شريف الحجاز, Sharīf al-Ḥijāz, links=no) was the title of the leader of the Sharifate of Mecca, traditional steward of the holy cities of Mecca and Medina and ...
, but at most times the sharif owed allegiance to the ruler of one of the major Islamic empires based in
Baghdad Baghdad (; ar, بَغْدَاد , ) is the capital of Iraq and the second-largest city in the Arab world after Cairo. It is located on the Tigris near the ruins of the ancient city of Babylon and the Sassanid Persian capital of Ctesipho ...
, Cairo or Istanbul. Most of the remainder of what became Saudi Arabia reverted to traditional tribal rule. For much of the 10th century, the Isma'ilism, Isma'ili-Shi'ite Qarmatians were the most powerful force in the Persian Gulf. In 930, the Qarmatians pillaged Mecca, outraging the Muslim world, particularly with their theft of the Black Stone. In 1077–1078, an Arab sheikh named Abdullah bin Ali Al Uyuni defeated the Qarmatians in Eastern Arabia, Bahrain and Al-Ahsa Oasis, al-Hasa with the help of the Seljuk Empire, Seljuq Empire and founded the Uyunid dynasty. The Uyunid Emirate later underwent expansion with its territory stretching from Najd to the Syrian Desert. They were overthrown by the Usfurids in 1253. Usfurid rule was weakened after Persian rulers of Ormus, Hormuz captured Bahrain and Qatif in 1320. The vassals of Ormuz, the Shia Jarwanid dynasty came to rule eastern Arabia in the 14th century. The Jabrids took control of the region after overthrowing the Jarwanids in the 15th century and clashed with Hormuz for more than two decades over the region for its economic revenues, until finally agreeing to pay tribute in 1507. Al-Muntafiq tribe later took over the region and came under Ottoman Empire, Ottoman suzerainty. The Bani Khalid (tribe), Bani Khalid tribe later revolted against them in the 17th century and took control. Their rule extended from Iraq to Oman at its height, and they too came under Ottoman suzerainty.


Ottoman Hejaz

In the 16th century, the Ottomans added the Red Sea and Persian Gulf coast (the Hejaz, 'Asir Province, Asir and Eastern Arabia, Al-Ahsa) to the empire and claimed suzerainty over the interior. One reason was to Ottoman–Portuguese conflicts (1538–1560), thwart Portuguese attempts to attack the Red Sea (hence the Hejaz) and the Indian Ocean.Bernstein, William J. (2008) ''A Splendid Exchange: How Trade Shaped the World''. Grove Press
pp. 191 ff
The Ottoman degree of control over these lands varied over the next four centuries with the fluctuating strength or weakness of the empire's central authority. These changes contributed to later uncertainties, such as the Occupation of Ma'an, dispute with Transjordan over the inclusion of the sanjak of Ma'an, including the cities of Ma'an and Aqaba.


Saud dynasty and unification

The emergence of what was to become the Saudi royal family, known as the Al Saud, began at the town of Diriyah in
Nejd Najd ( ar, نَجْدٌ, ), or the Nejd, forms the geographic center of Saudi Arabia, accounting for about a third of the country's modern population and, since the Emirate of Diriyah, acting as the base for all unification campaigns by the H ...
in central Arabia with the accession as emir of
Muhammad bin Saud Muhammad bin Saud Al Muqrin ( ''Muḥammad bin Suʿūd Āl Muqrin''; 1687–1765), also known as Ibn Saud, was the emir of Diriyah and is considered the founder of the First Saudi State and the Saud dynasty, which are named for his father, Sau ...
on 22 February 1727. In 1744 he joined forces with the religious leader Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, founder of the Wahhabi movement, a strict puritanical form of Sunni Islam. This alliance provided the ideological impetus to Saudi expansion and remains the basis of Saudi Arabian dynastic rule today. The
Emirate of Diriyah The Emirate of Diriyah (), also known as the First Saudi State, was established in February 1727 (1139 AH). In 1744, the emir of Najdi town called Diriyah Muhammad bin Saud and the religious leader Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab formed an allianc ...
established in the area around Riyadh rapidly expanded and briefly controlled most of the present-day territory of Saudi Arabia, Wahhabi sack of Karbala, sacking Karbala in 1802, and Destruction of early Islamic heritage sites in Saudi Arabia, capturing Mecca in 1803. In 1818, it was destroyed by the Ottoman viceroy of Egypt, Muhammad Ali of Egypt, Mohammed Ali Pasha. The much smaller
Emirate of Nejd The Emirate of Nejd or Imamate of Nejd was the Second Saudi State, existing between 1824 and 1891 in Nejd, the regions of Riyadh and Ha'il of what is now Saudi Arabia. Saudi rule was restored to central and eastern Arabia after the Emirate of D ...
was established in 1824. Throughout the rest of the 19th century, the Al Saud contested control of the interior of what was to become Saudi Arabia with another Arabian ruling family, the Rashidi dynasty, Al Rashid, who ruled the Emirate of Jabal Shammar. By 1891, the Al Rashid were victorious and the Al Saud were driven into exile in Kuwait. At the beginning of the 20th century, the Ottoman Empire continued to control or have a suzerainty over most of the peninsula. Subject to this suzerainty, Arabia was ruled by a patchwork of tribal rulers, with the
Sharif of Mecca The Sharif of Mecca ( ar, شريف مكة, Sharīf Makkah) or Hejaz ( ar, شريف الحجاز, Sharīf al-Ḥijāz, links=no) was the title of the leader of the Sharifate of Mecca, traditional steward of the holy cities of Mecca and Medina and ...
having pre-eminence and ruling the Hejaz. In 1902, Abdul Rahman bin Faisal, Abdul Rahman's son, Abdul Aziz—later known as
Ibn Saud Abdulaziz bin Abdul Rahman Al Saud ( ar, عبد العزيز بن عبد الرحمن آل سعود, ʿAbd al ʿAzīz bin ʿAbd ar Raḥman Āl Suʿūd; 15 January 1875Ibn Saud's birth year has been a source of debate. It is generally accepted ...
—recaptured control of Riyadh bringing the Al Saud back to Nejd, creating the Emirate of Nejd and Hasa, third "Saudi state". Ibn Saud gained the support of the Ikhwan, a tribal army inspired by Wahhabism and led by Faisal Al-Dawish, and which had grown quickly after its foundation in 1912. With the aid of the Ikhwan, Ibn Saud captured Al-Ahsa from the Ottomans in 1913. In 1916, with the encouragement and support of United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, Britain (which was fighting the Ottomans in World War I), the Sharif of Mecca, Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca, Hussein bin Ali, led a pan-Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire to create a united Arab state. Although the revolt failed in its objective, Allies of World War I, the Allied victory in World War I resulted in the end of Ottoman suzerainty and control in Arabia, and Hussein bin Ali became Kingdom of Hejaz, King of Hejaz. Ibn Saud avoided involvement in the Arab Revolt and instead continued his struggle with the Al Rashid. Following the latter's final defeat, he took the title Sultanate of Nejd, Sultan of Nejd in 1921. With the help of the Ikhwan, the Kingdom of Hejaz was conquered in 1924–25, and on 10 January 1926, Ibn Saud declared himself king of Hejaz. For the next five years, he administered the two parts of his dual kingdom as separate units. After the conquest of the Hejaz, the Ikhwan leadership's objective switched to expansion of the Wahhabist realm into the British protectorates of Transjordan, Iraq and Kuwait, and began raiding those territories. This met with Ibn Saud's opposition, as he recognized the danger of a direct conflict with the British. At the same time, the Ikhwan became disenchanted with Ibn Saud's domestic policies which appeared to favour modernization and the increase in the number of non-Muslim foreigners in the country. As a result, they turned against Ibn Saud and, after a two-year struggle, were defeated in 1929 at the Battle of Sabilla, where their leaders were massacred. On Ibn Saud's behalf, Faisal bin Abdulaziz al Saud, Prince Faisal declared the unification on 23 September 1932, and the two kingdoms of Hejaz and Nejd were unified as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. That date is now a national holiday called Saudi National Day.


20th century

The new kingdom was reliant on limited agriculture and pilgrimage revenues. Dammam No. 7, In 1938, vast reserves of oil were discovered in the Al-Ahsa region along the coast of the Persian Gulf, and full-scale development of the oil fields began in 1941 under the US-controlled Saudi Aramco, Aramco (Arabian American Oil Company). Oil provided Saudi Arabia with economic prosperity and substantial political leverage internationally. Cultural life rapidly developed, primarily in the Hejaz, which was the centre for newspapers and radio. However, the large influx of foreign workers in Saudi Arabia in the oil industry increased the pre-existing propensity for xenophobia. At the same time, the government became increasingly wasteful and extravagant. By the 1950s this had led to large governmental deficits and excessive foreign borrowing. In 1953, Saud of Saudi Arabia succeeded as the king of Saudi Arabia. In 1964 he was deposed in favour of his half brother Faisal of Saudi Arabia, after an intense rivalry, fuelled by doubts in the royal family over Saud's competence. In 1972, Saudi Arabia gained a 20% control in Aramco, thereby decreasing US control over Saudi oil. In 1973, Saudi Arabia led an 1973 oil crisis, oil boycott against the Western countries that supported Israel in the Yom Kippur War against Egypt and Syria, leading to the quadrupling of oil prices. In 1975, Faisal was assassinated by his nephew, Prince Faisal bin Musaid and was succeeded by his half-brother Khalid of Saudi Arabia, King Khalid.#Al-Rasheed, Al-Rasheed, pp. 136–137 By 1976, Saudi Arabia had become the largest oil producer in the world. Khalid's reign saw economic and social development progress at an extremely rapid rate, transforming the infrastructure and educational system of the country; in foreign policy, close ties with the US were developed. In 1979, two events occurred which greatly concerned the government and had a long-term influence on Saudi foreign and domestic policy. The first was the Iranian Revolution, Iranian Islamic Revolution. It was feared that the country's Shi'a Islam in Saudi Arabia, Shi'ite minority in the Eastern Province (which is also the location of the oil fields) might rebel under the influence of their Iranian co-religionists. There were several anti-government uprisings in the region such as the 1979 Qatif Uprising. The second event was the Grand Mosque Seizure in Mecca by Islamist extremists. The militants involved were in part angered by what they considered to be the corruption and un-Islamic nature of the Saudi government. The government regained control of the mosque after 10 days, and those captured were executed. Part of the response of the royal family was to enforce the much stricter observance of traditional religious and social norms in the country (for example, the closure of cinemas) and to give the ulema a greater role in government.#Hegghammer, Hegghammer, p. 24 Neither entirely succeeded as Islamism continued to grow in strength. In 1980, Saudi Arabia bought out the American interests in Aramco. King Khalid died of a heart attack in June 1982. He was succeeded by his brother, Fahd of Saudi Arabia, King Fahd, who added the title "Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques" to his name in 1986 in response to considerable fundamentalist pressure to avoid the use of "majesty" in association with anything except God. Fahd continued to develop close relations with the United States and increased the purchase of American and British military equipment. The vast wealth generated by oil revenues was beginning to have an even greater impact on Saudi society. It led to rapid technological (but not cultural) modernization, urbanization, mass public education, and the creation of new media. This and the presence of increasingly large numbers of foreign workers greatly affected traditional Saudi norms and values. Although there was a dramatic change in the social and economic life of the country, political power continued to be monopolized by the royal family leading to discontent among many Saudis who began to look for wider participation in government. In the 1980s, Saudi Arabia and
Kuwait Kuwait (; ar, الكويت ', or ), officially the State of Kuwait ( ar, دولة الكويت '), is a country in Western Asia. It is situated in the northern edge of Eastern Arabia at the tip of the Persian Gulf, bordering Iraq to the no ...
spent $25 billion in support of Saddam Hussein in the Iran–Iraq War (1980–1988); however, Saudi Arabia condemned the invasion of Kuwait in 1990 and asked the United States to intervene. King Fahd allowed American and coalition troops to be stationed in Saudi Arabia. He invited the Kuwaiti government and many of its citizens to stay in Saudi Arabia, but expelled citizens of
Yemen Yemen (; ar, ٱلْيَمَن, al-Yaman), officially the Republic of Yemen,, ) is a country in Western Asia. It is situated on the southern end of the Arabian Peninsula, and borders Saudi Arabia to the north and Oman to the northeast an ...
and
Jordan Jordan ( ar, الأردن; tr. ' ), officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan,; tr. ' is a country in Western Asia. It is situated at the crossroads of Asia, Africa, and Europe, within the Levant region, on the East Bank of the Jordan Ri ...
because of their governments' support of Ba'athist Iraq, Iraq. In 1991, Saudi Arabian forces were involved both in bombing raids on Iraq and in the land invasion that helped to liberate Kuwait, which became known as the Gulf War (1990–1991). Saudi Arabia's relations with the West was one of the issues that led to List of militant incidents in Saudi Arabia, an increase in Islamist terrorism in Saudi Arabia, as well as Islamist terrorist attacks in Western countries by Saudi nationals. Osama bin Laden was a Saudi citizen (until stripped of his citizenship in 1994) and was responsible for the 1998 United States embassy bombings, 1998 U.S. embassy bombings in East Africa and the 2000 USS Cole bombing, USS ''Cole'' bombing near the port of Aden, Yemen. 15 of Hijackers in the September 11 attacks, the hijackers involved in the September 11 attacks were Saudi nationals. Many Saudis who did not support the Islamist terrorists were nevertheless deeply unhappy with the government's policies. Islamism was not the only source of hostility to the government. Although extremely wealthy by the 21st century, Saudi Arabia's economy was near stagnant. High taxes and a growth in unemployment have contributed to discontent and have been reflected in a rise in civil unrest, and discontent with the royal family. In response, a number of limited reforms were initiated by King Fahd. In March 1992, he introduced the " Basic Law", which emphasized the duties and responsibilities of a ruler. In December 1993, the Consultative Council was inaugurated. It is composed of a chairman and 60 members—all chosen by the King. Fahd made it clear that he did not have democracy in mind, saying: "A system based on elections is not consistent with our Islamic creed, which [approves of] government by consultation [shūrā]." In 1995, Fahd suffered a debilitating stroke, and the Crown Prince, Abdullah of Saudi Arabia, Abdullah, assumed the role of ''de facto'' regent; however, his authority was hindered by conflict with Fahd's full brothers (known, with Fahd, as the "Sudairi Seven").


21st century

Signs of discontent included, in 2003 and 2004, a series of bombings and armed violence in Riyadh, Jeddah, Yanbu and Khobar. In February–April 2005, 2005 Saudi Arabian municipal elections, the first-ever nationwide municipal elections were held in Saudi Arabia. Women were not allowed to take part. In 2005, King Fahd died and was succeeded by Abdullah, who continued the policy of minimum reform and clamping down on protests. The king introduced economic reforms aimed at reducing the country's reliance on oil revenue: limited deregulation, encouragement of foreign investment, and privatization. In February 2009, Abdullah announced a series of governmental changes to the judiciary, armed forces, and various ministries to modernize these institutions including the replacement of senior appointees in the judiciary and the Islamic religious police, Mutaween (religious police) with more moderate individuals and the appointment of the country's first female deputy minister. On 29 January 2011, hundreds of protesters gathered in Jeddah in a rare display of criticism against the city's poor infrastructure after flooding killed 11 people. Police stopped the demonstration after about 15 minutes and arrested 30 to 50 people. Since 2011, Saudi Arabia has been affected by its own 2011–13 Saudi Arabian protests, Arab Spring protests. In response, King Abdullah announced on 22 February 2011 a series of benefits for citizens amounting to $36 billion, of which $10.7 billion was earmarked for housing. No political reforms were included, though some prisoners indicted for financial crimes were pardoned. Abdullah also announced a package of $93 billion, which included new homes to a cost of $67 billion, in addition to creating new security jobs. Although male-only Saudi Arabian municipal elections, 2011, municipal elections were held on 29 September 2011, Abdullah allowed women to vote and be elected in the Saudi Arabian municipal elections, 2015, 2015 municipal elections, and also to be nominated to the Consultative Assembly of Saudi Arabia, Shura Council.


Geography

Saudi Arabia occupies about 80% of the Arabian Peninsula (the world's largest peninsula), lying between latitudes 16th parallel north, 16° and 33rd parallel north, 33° N, and longitudes 34th meridian east, 34° and 56th meridian east, 56° E. Because the country's southeastern and southern borders with the
United Arab Emirates The United Arab Emirates (UAE; ar, اَلْإِمَارَات الْعَرَبِيَة الْمُتَحِدَة ), or simply the Emirates ( ar, الِْإمَارَات ), is a country in Western Asia ( The Middle East). It is located at ...
and
Oman Oman ( ; ar, عُمَان ' ), officially the Sultanate of Oman ( ar, سلْطنةُ عُمان ), is an Arabian country located in southwestern Asia. It is situated on the southeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula, and spans the mouth of ...
are not precisely marked, the exact size of the country is undefined. The United Nations Statistics Division estimates and lists Saudi Arabia as the world's List of countries and dependencies by area, 12th largest state. It is geographically the largest country in the Middle East and on the Arabian Plate. Saudi Arabia's geography is dominated by the Arabian Desert, associated semi-desert, shrubland, steppes, several mountain ranges, volcanic lava fields and highlands. The Rub' al Khali ("Empty Quarter") in the southeastern part of the country is the world's largest contiguous sand desert. Though there are lakes in the country, Saudi Arabia is the largest country in the world by area with no permanent rivers. Wadis, non-permanent rivers, however, List of wadis of Saudi Arabia, are very numerous throughout the kingdom. The fertile areas are to be found in the alluvial deposits in wadis, basins, and oases. There are List of islands of Saudi Arabia, approximately 1,300 islands in the Red Sea and Arabian Gulf. The main topographical feature is the central plateau which rises abruptly from the Red Sea and gradually descends into the
Nejd Najd ( ar, نَجْدٌ, ), or the Nejd, forms the geographic center of Saudi Arabia, accounting for about a third of the country's modern population and, since the Emirate of Diriyah, acting as the base for all unification campaigns by the H ...
and toward the Arabian Gulf. On the Red Sea coast, there is a narrow coastal plain, known as the Tihamah, parallel to which runs along an imposing escarpment. The southwest province of 'Asir Province, Asir is mountainous and contains the Jabal Ferwa ('Asir), Jabal Ferwa, which is the highest point in the country. Saudi Arabia is home to more than 2,000 dormant volcanoes. Lava fields in Hejaz, known locally by their Arabic name of harrat (the singular is harrah), form one of Earth's largest alkali basalt regions, covering some . Except for the southwestern regions such as Asir, Saudi Arabia has a desert climate with very high day-time temperatures during the summer and a sharp temperature drop at night. Average summer temperatures are around but can be as high as . In the winter the temperature rarely drops below with the exception of mostly the northern regions of the country where annual snowfall, in particular in the mountainous regions of Tabuk Province, is not uncommon. The lowest recorded temperature, −12.0 °C (10.4 °F), was measured in Turaif. In the spring and autumn the heat is temperate, temperatures average around . Annual rainfall is very low. The southern regions differ in that they are influenced by the Indian Ocean monsoons, usually occurring between October and March. An average of of rainfall occurs during this period, which is about 60% of the annual precipitation.


Biodiversity

Saudi Arabia is home to five terrestrial ecoregions: Arabian Peninsula coastal fog desert, Southwestern Arabian foothills savanna, Southwestern Arabian montane woodlands, Arabian Desert, and Red Sea Nubo-Sindian tropical desert and semi-desert. Wildlife includes the Arabian leopard, Arabian wolf, striped hyena, mongoose, baboon, Cape hare, sand cat, and jerboa. Animals such as gazelles, oryx, leopards and Asiatic cheetah, cheetahs were relatively numerous until the 19th century, when extensive hunting reduced these animals almost to extinction. The culturally important Asiatic lion occurred in Saudi Arabia until the late 19th century before it was hunted to extinction in the wild. Birds include falcons (which are caught and trained for hunting), eagles, hawks, vultures, sandgrouse, and bulbuls. There are several species of snakes, many of which are venomous. Domesticated animals include the legendary Arabian horse, Arabian camel, sheep, goats, cattle, donkeys, chickens, etc. The Red Sea is a rich and diverse ecosystem with more than List of fishes in the Red Sea, 1,200 species of fish around 10% of which are Endemism, endemic. This also includes 42 species of List of deep water fish of the Red Sea, deep water fish. The rich diversity is partly owed to the of coral reef extending along the coastline; these fringing reefs are largely formed of stony acropora and porites corals. The reefs form platforms and sometimes lagoons along the coast and occasional other features such as cylinders (such as the Blue Hole (Red Sea), Blue Hole at Dahab). These coastal reefs are also visited by Pelagic zone, pelagic species, including some of the List of sharks in the Red Sea, 44 species of shark. There are many offshore reefs including several Atoll, atolls. Many of the unusual offshore reef formations defy classic (i.e., Darwinian) coral reef classification schemes and are generally attributed to the high levels of tectonic activity that characterize the area. Reflecting the country's dominant desert conditions, plant life mostly consists of herbs, plants, and shrubs that require little water. The date palm (''Phoenix dactylifera'') is widespread.


Government and politics

Saudi Arabia is an
absolute monarchy Absolute monarchy (or Absolutism as a doctrine) is a form of monarchy in which the monarch rules in their own right or power. In an absolute monarchy, the king or queen is by no means limited and has absolute power, though a limited constituti ...
; however, according to the Basic Law of Saudi Arabia adopted by royal decree in 1992, the king must comply with Sharia (Islamic law) and the Quran, while the Quran and the Sunnah (the traditions of Muhammad) are declared to be the country's constitution. No political parties or national elections are permitted. While some critics consider it to be a Totalitarianism, totalitarian state, others regard it as lacking aspects of totalitarianism but nevertheless classify it as an authoritarian regime. ''The Economist'' ranked the Saudi government 150th out of 167 in its 2022 Democracy Index, and Freedom House gave it its lowest "Not Free" rating, giving it a score of 8 out of 100 for 2023. According to the 2023 V-Dem Democracy Indices, Saudi Arabia is the least Democracy in the Middle East and North Africa, democratic country in the Middle East. In the absence of national elections and political parties, politics in Saudi Arabia takes place in two distinct arenas: within the royal family, the Al Saud, and between the royal family and the rest of Saudi society. Outside of the Al Saud, participation in the political process is limited to a relatively small segment of the population and takes the form of the royal family consulting with the ulema, tribal sheikhs, and members of important commercial families on major decisions. This process is not reported by the Saudi media. By custom, all males of full age have a right to petition the king directly through the traditional tribal meeting known as the ''majlis''. In many ways the approach to government differs little from the traditional system of tribal rule. Tribal identity remains strong, and outside of the royal family, political influence is frequently determined by tribal affiliation, with tribal sheikhs maintaining a considerable degree of influence over local and national events. In recent years there have been limited steps to widen political participation such as the establishment of the Consultative Council in the early 1990s and the National Dialogue Forum in 2003.#Al-Rasheed, Al-Rasheed, pp. 180, 242–243, 248, 257–258 In 2005, the first municipal elections were held. In 2007, the Allegiance Council was created to regulate the succession. In 2009, the king made significant personnel changes to the government by appointing reformers to key positions and the first woman to a ministerial post; however, these changes have been criticized as being too slow or merely cosmetic. The rule of the Al Saud faces political opposition from four sources: Sunni Islamist activism; liberal critics; the Shia Islam in Saudi Arabia, Shi'ite minority—particularly in the Eastern Province; and long-standing tribal and Regionalism (politics), regionalist particularistic opponents (for example in the Hejaz). Of these, the minority activists have been the most prominent threat to the government and have in recent years been involved in List of terrorist incidents in Saudi Arabia, violent incidents in the country. However, open protest against the government, even if peaceful, is not tolerated.


Monarchy and royal family

The king combines legislative, executive, and judicial functions and royal decrees form the basis of the country's legislation. The prime minister presides over the Council of Ministers of Saudi Arabia and Consultative Assembly of Saudi Arabia. The king has usually been also the prime minister, with two exceptions: Crown Prince Faisal of Saudi Arabia, Faisal, who was prime minister during the reign of Saud of Saudi Arabia, King Saud, and Crown Prince Mohammed Bin Salman, Mohammed Bin Salman, the current prime minister since 2022. The royal family dominates the political system. The family's vast numbers allows it to control most of the kingdom's important posts and to have an involvement and presence at all levels of government. The number of princes is estimated to be at least , with most power and influence being wielded by the 200 or so male descendants of Ibn Saud. The key ministries are generally reserved for the royal family, as are the 13 regional governorships. The Saudi government and the royal family have often been accused of corruption over many years, and this continues into the 21st century. In a country that is said to "belong" to the royal family and is named for them, the lines between state assets and the personal wealth of senior princes are blurred. The extent of corruption has been described as systemic and endemic, and its existence was acknowledged and defended by Bandar bin Sultan, Prince Bandar bin Sultan (a senior member of the royal family) in an interview in 2001. In its Corruption Perceptions Index for 2010, Transparency International gave Saudi Arabia a score of 4.7 (on a scale from 0 to 10 where 0 is "highly corrupt" and 10 is "highly clean"). Saudi Arabia has undergone a process of political and social reform, such as to increase public transparency and good governance, but nepotism and patronage are widespread when doing business in the country; the enforcement of the anti-corruption laws is selective and public officials engage in corruption with impunity. As many as 500 people, including prominent Saudi Arabian princes, government ministers, and businesspeople, were 2017–2019 Saudi Arabian purge, arrested in an anti-corruption campaign in November 2017.


Al ash-Sheikh and role of the ulema

Saudi Arabia is unique in giving the Ulama, ulema (the body of Islamic religious leaders and jurists) a direct role in government. The preferred ulema are of the Salafi movement. The ulema have been a key influence in major government decisions, for example the imposition of the 1973 oil crisis, oil embargo in 1973 and the Gulf War, invitation to foreign troops to Saudi Arabia in 1990. In addition, they have had a major role in the judicial and education systems and a monopoly of authority in religious and social morals. By the 1970s, as a result of oil wealth and the modernization initiated by King Faisal, important changes to Saudi society were underway, and the power of the ulema was in decline. However, this changed following the Grand Mosque seizure, seizure of the Grand Mosque in Mecca in 1979 by Islamist radicals. The government's response to the crisis included strengthening the ulema's powers and increasing their financial support: in particular, they were given greater control over the education system and allowed to enforce the stricter observance of Wahhabi rules of moral and social behaviour. After his accession to the throne in 2005, King Abdullah took steps to reduce the powers of the ulema, for instance transferring control over girls' education to the Ministry of Education. The ulema have historically been led by the Al ash-Sheikh, the country's leading religious family. The Al ash-Sheikh are the descendants of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, the 18th-century founder of the Wahhabi form of Sunni Islam which is today dominant in Saudi Arabia. The family is second in prestige only to the Al Saud (the royal family)#Long, Long, p. 11 with whom they formed a "mutual support pact" and power-sharing arrangement nearly 300 years ago. The pact, which persists to this day, is based on the Al Saud maintaining the Al ash-Sheikh's authority in religious matters and upholding and propagating Wahhabi doctrine. In return, the Al ash-Sheikh support the Al Saud's political authority thereby using its religious-moral authority to legitimize the royal family's rule. Although the Al ash-Sheikh's domination of the ulema has diminished in recent decades, they still hold the most important religious posts and are closely linked to the Al Saud by a high degree of intermarriage.


Legal system

The primary source of law is the Islamic Sharia derived from the teachings of the Qur'an and the Sunnah (the traditions of the Prophet). Saudi Arabia is unique among modern Muslim states in that Sharia is not codified and there is no system of judicial precedent, allowing judges to use independent legal reasoning to make a decision. Thus, divergent judgments arise even in apparently identical cases,#Otto, Otto, pp. 161–162 making predictability of legal interpretation difficult. Saudi judges tend to follow the principles of the Hanbali school of jurisprudence (''fiqh'') found in pre-modern texts and noted for its literalist interpretation of the Qur'an and hadith. However, in 2021, Saudi Arabia announced judicial reforms which will lead to an entirely codified law that eliminates discrepancies. Royal decrees are the other main source of law but are referred to as ''regulations'' rather than ''laws'' because they are subordinate to the Sharia. Royal decrees supplement Sharia in areas such as labour, commercial and corporate law. Additionally, traditional tribal law and custom remain significant. Extra-Sharia government tribunals usually handle disputes relating to specific royal decrees. Final appeal from both Sharia courts and government tribunals is to the king, and all courts and tribunals follow Sharia rules of evidence and procedure. Retaliatory punishments, or Qisas, are practised: for instance, an eye can be surgically removed at the insistence of a victim who lost his own eye. Families of someone unlawfully killed can choose between demanding the death penalty or granting clemency in return for a payment of diyya (blood money), by the perpetrator.


Administrative divisions

Saudi Arabia is divided into 13 regions ( ar, مناطق إدارية; ''manatiq idāriyya'', sing. منطقة إدارية; ''mintaqah idariyya''). The regions are further divided into 118 Governorates of Saudi Arabia, governorates ( ar, محافظات; ''muhafazat'', sing. محافظة; ''muhafazah''). This number includes the 13 regional capitals, which have a different status as municipalities ( ar, أمانة; ''amanah'') headed by mayors ( ar, أمين; ''amin''). The governorates are further subdivided into sub-governorates ( ar, مراكز; ''Markaz (country subdivision), marakiz'', sing. مركز; ''markaz'').


Foreign relations

Saudi Arabia joined the UN in 1945 and is a founding member of the Arab League, Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf, Gulf Cooperation Council, Muslim World League, and the Organisation of the Islamic Conference (now the
Organisation of Islamic Cooperation An organization or organisation (Commonwealth English; see spelling differences), is an entity—such as a company, an institution, or an association—comprising one or more people and having a particular purpose. The word is derived fr ...
). It plays a prominent role in the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank, and in 2005 joined the World Trade Organization. Since 1960, as a founding member of
OPEC The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC, ) is a cartel of countries. Founded on 14 September 1960 in Baghdad by the first five members (Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Venezuela), it has, since 1965, been headquart ...
, its oil pricing policy has been generally to stabilize the world oil market and try to moderate sharp price movements so as not to jeopardize the Western economies. In 1973, Saudi Arabia and other Arab nations imposed an oil embargo against the United States, United Kingdom, Japan and other Western nations which supported Israel in the Yom Kippur War of October 1973. The embargo caused an 1973 oil crisis, oil crisis with many short- and long-term effects on global politics and the global economy. Saudi Arabia–United States relations, Saudi Arabia and the United States are strategic allies, and Saudi Arabia is considered to be pro-Western. On 20 May 2017, President Donald Trump and King Salman signed a series of letters of intent for Saudi Arabia to 2017 United States–Saudi Arabia arms deal, purchase arms from the United States totaling $350 billion over 10 years. Saudi Arabia's role in the 1991 Gulf War, particularly the stationing of US troops on Saudi soil from 1991, prompted the development of a hostile Islamist response internally. As a result, Saudi Arabia has, to some extent, distanced itself from the US and, for example, refused to support or to participate in the US-led Iraq War, invasion of Iraq in 2003. China–Saudi Arabia relations, China and Saudi Arabia are major allies, with the relationship between the two countries growing significantly in recent decades. A significant number of Saudi Arabians have also expressed a positive view of China. In February 2019, Crown Prince Mohammad defended China's Xinjiang re-education camps for Uyghurs, Uyghur Islam in China, Muslims. According to ''The Diplomat'', Saudi Arabia's human rights record has "come under frequent attack abroad and so defending China becomes a roundabout way of defending themselves." The consequences of the 2003 invasion and the Arab Spring led to increasing alarm within the Saudi monarchy over the rise of Iran's influence in the region. These fears were reflected in comments of King Abdullah, who privately urged the United States to attack Iran and "cut off the head of the snake". Saudi Arabia has been seen as a moderating influence in the Arab–Israeli conflict, periodically putting forward a peace plan between Israel and the Palestinian people, Palestinians and condemning Hezbollah. Saudi Arabia halted new trade and investment dealings with Canada and Canada–Saudi Arabia relations, suspended diplomatic ties in a dramatic escalation of a dispute over the kingdom's arrest of women's rights activist Samar Badawi on 6 August 2018. In 2017, as part of Nuclear power in Saudi Arabia, its nuclear power Nuclear program of Saudi Arabia, programme, Saudi Arabia planned to extract uranium domestically, taking a step towards self-sufficiency in producing nuclear fuel.


Allegations of sponsoring global terrorism

Saudi Arabia has been accused of sponsoring Islamic terrorism. According to Iraq Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki in March 2014, Saudi Arabia along with Qatar provided political, financial, and media support to terrorists against the Iraqi government. Similarly, President of Syria Bashar al-Assad noted in 2015 that the sources of the extreme ideology of the terrorist organization Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant, ISIS and other such Salafi jihadism, salafist extremist groups are the Wahabbism that has been supported by the royal family of Saudi Arabia. Relations with the U.S. became strained following September 11 attacks, 9/11 terror attacks. American politicians and media accused the Saudi government of supporting terrorism and tolerating a ''jihadist'' culture. According to former U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton in December 2010 , "Saudi Arabia remains a critical financial support base for al-Qaida, the Taliban, LeT and other terrorist groups... Donors in Saudi Arabia constitute the most significant source of funding to Sunni terrorist groups worldwide." The Saudi government denies these claims or that it exports religious or cultural extremism. In September 2016, the U.S. Congress passed the Justice Against Sponsors of Terrorism Act that would allow relatives of victims of the 11 September attacks to sue Saudi Arabia for Alleged Saudi role in the September 11 attacks, its government's alleged role in the attacks. In 2014, Abdulaziz Al Sheikh, Sheikh Abdulaziz bin Abdullah Al-Sheikh, the Grand Mufti of Saudi Arabia and Chairman of the Council of Senior Scholars (Saudi Arabia), Council of Senior Scholars, issued a fatwa explicitly prohibiting joining or supporting terrorist organizations such as Islamic State, ISIS and al-Qaeda. According to the United States Department of State, U.S. Department of State, "Saudi Arabia plays an important role in working toward a peaceful and prosperous future for the region and is a strong partner in security and counterterrorism efforts and in military, diplomatic, and financial cooperation." A significant Saudi counterterrorism success success was the foiling of a 2010 2010 transatlantic aircraft bomb plot, cargo plane bomb plot. In December 2015, Saudi Arabia announced the formation of the Islamic Military Counter Terrorism Coalition , an alliance of Muslim-majority countries aimed at combating terrorism and extremism. However, since 2016 the kingdom began backing away from Islamist ideologies. Several reforms took place including curbing the powers of Committee for the Promotion of Virtue and the Prevention of Vice (Saudi Arabia), religious police, and stopping funding mosques in foreign countries.


Military

Saudi Arabia's military forces include the Armed Forces of Saudi Arabia under the Ministry of Defence (Saudi Arabia), Ministry of Defence, which consist of the Saudi Arabian Army, Royal Saudi Land Forces (which include the Saudi Royal Guard Regiment, Royal Guard), the Royal Saudi Air Force, Air Force, the Royal Saudi Navy, Navy, the Royal Saudi Air Defense Forces, Air Defence, and the Royal Saudi Strategic Missile Force, Strategic Missile Force; the Saudi Arabian National Guard under the Ministry of National Guard; paramilitary forces under the Ministry of Interior (Saudi Arabia), Minister of Interior, including the General Directorate of Border Guard, Saudi Arabian Border Guard and the Facilities Security Force; and the Presidency of State Security, including the Special Security Force and the Saudi Emergency Force, Emergency Force. As of 2023 there are 127,000 active personnel in the Armed Forces, 130,000 in the National Guard, and 24,500 in the paramilitary security forces. The National Guard is made up of tribal forces that are loyal to the Saudi royal family and have a role in both domestic security and foreign defence. Saudi Arabia has security relationships with the United States, the United Kingdom, and France, which provide it with training and weapons. Saudi Arabia has one of the highest percentages of military expenditure in the world, spending around 8% of its GDP in its military, according to the 2020 Stockholm International Peace Research Institute estimate, which places it as the world's third largest military spender behind the United States and China,Global defence spending: the United States widens the gap
(International Institute for Strategic Studies, IISS) – 14 February 2020
and the world's largest arms importer from 2015 to 2019, receiving half of all the U.S. arms exports to the Middle East. Spending on defence and security has increased significantly since the mid-1990s and was about US$78.4 billion as of 2019. According to the Bonn International Centre for Conflict Studies, BICC, Saudi Arabia is the 28th most militarized country in the world and possesses the second-best military equipment qualitatively in the region, after Israel. Its modern high-technology arsenal makes Saudi Arabia among the world's most densely armed nations. The kingdom has a Pakistan–Saudi Arabia relations#Security relations, long-standing military relationship with Pakistan; it has long been speculated that Saudi Arabia secretly funded Pakistan's Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction, atomic bomb program and seeks to purchase atomic weapons from Pakistan in the near future. In March 2015, Saudi Arabia mobilized 150,000 troops and 100 fighter jets to support its Saudi-led intervention in the Yemeni civil war, intervention in the civil war in neighbouring
Yemen Yemen (; ar, ٱلْيَمَن, al-Yaman), officially the Republic of Yemen,, ) is a country in Western Asia. It is situated on the southern end of the Arabian Peninsula, and borders Saudi Arabia to the north and Oman to the northeast an ...
. () By early 2016, Saudi ground forces and their coalition allies captured Aden and parts of southwest Yemen, though the Houthis continued to control northern Yemen and the capital city Sanaa. From there the Houthis launched successful attacks across the border into Saudi Arabia. The Saudi military has also carried out an aerial bombing campaign and a naval blockade aimed at stopping weapons shipments to the Houthis.


Human rights

The Saudi government, which mandates Muslim and non-Muslim observance of Sharia law under the absolute rule of the House of Saud, has been denounced by various international organizations and governments for violating human rights within the country. The authoritarian regime is consistently ranked among the "worst of the worst" in Freedom House's Freedom in the World, annual survey of political and civil rights. According to Amnesty International, security forces continue to torture and ill-treat detainees to extract confessions to be used as evidence against them at trial. Saudi Arabia abstained from the United Nations vote adopting the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, saying it contradicted Sharia. Mass executions, such as those carried out 2016 Saudi Arabia mass execution, in 2016, 2019 Saudi Arabia mass execution, in 2019, and 2022 Saudi Arabia mass execution, in 2022, have been condemned by international rights groups. Since 2001, Saudi Arabia has engaged in Censorship in Saudi Arabia#The Internet, widespread internet censorship. Most online censorship generally falls into two categories: one based on censoring "immoral" (mostly pornographic and LGBT-supportive websites along with websites promoting any religious ideology other than Sunni Islam) and one based on a blacklist run by Ministry of Media (Saudi Arabia), Saudi Arabia's Ministry of Media, which primarily censors websites critical of the Saudi regime or associated with parties that are opposed to or opposed by Saudi Arabia. Saudi Arabian law does not recognize LGBT rights in Saudi Arabia, sexual orientations or religious freedom, and the public practice of non-Muslim religions is actively prohibited. The justice system regularly engages in capital punishment, which has included public executions by decapitation, beheading. In line with Sharia in the Legal system of Saudi Arabia, Saudi justice system, the death penalty can theoretically be imposed for a wide range of offenses, including murder, rape, armed robbery, repeated drug use, apostasy, adultery, witchcraft and sorcery, and can be carried out by beheading with a sword, stoning or firing squad, followed by Crucifixion#Legal execution in Islamic states, crucifixion (exposure of the body after execution). In 2022, the Saudi Crown Prince stated that capital punishments will be removed "except for one category mentioned in the Quran", namely Qisas#Traditional jurisprudence, homicide, under which certain conditions must be applied. In April 2020, Saudi Supreme Court issued a directive to eliminate the punishment of flogging from the Saudi court system, replaced by imprisonment or fines. Historically, Saudi women faced discrimination in many aspects of their lives and under the Wali (Islamic legal guardian), male guardianship system were effectively treated as minor (law), legal minors. The treatment of women had been referred to as "sex segregation" and "gender apartheid". As of June 2023, the kingdom has reportedly reversed its ban on women "becoming lawyers, engineers, or geologists" and established "aggressive affirmative action programs", doubling the female labour force participation rate. It has added "its first female newspaper editors, diplomats, TV anchors and public prosecutors", with a female head of the Saudi stock exchange and member on the board of Saudi Aramco. In addition, on June 24th, 2018, the Saudi government issued a law officially allowing women to drive. Saudi Arabia is a notable destination country for men and women trafficked for the purposes of slavery, slave labour and commercial sexual exploitation. Migrants from Asia, Africa, and the Middle East are employed in the country's construction, hospitality, and domestic work sectors under the kafala system which human rights groups say is linked to abuses including modern Slavery in Saudi Arabia, slavery.


Economy

, Saudi Arabia is the largest Economy of the Middle East, economy in the Middle East and the 18th largest in the world. It has the world's List of countries by proven oil reserves, second-largest proven petroleum reserves and is the List of countries by oil exports, largest exporter of petroleum. The country has the world's second-largest oil reserves and the List of countries by natural gas proven reserves, sixth-largest proven natural gas reserves. Saudi Arabia is considered an "energy superpower," having the second highest total estimated value of natural resources, valued at US$34.4 trillion in 2016. The command economy is petroleum-based; roughly 63% of budget revenues and 67% of export earnings come from the oil industry. The oil industry constitutes about 45% of Saudi Arabia's nominal gross domestic product, compared with 40% from the private sector. It is strongly dependent on foreign workers with about 80% of those employed in the private sector being non-Saudi.Economists "estimate only 30–40 percent of working-age Saudis hold jobs or actively seek work," the official employment rate of around 12 percent notwithstanding: Challenges to the economy include halting or reversing the decline in per-capita income, improving education to prepare youth for the workforce and providing them with employment, diversifying the economy, stimulating the private sector and housing construction, and diminishing corruption and inequality.
OPEC The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC, ) is a cartel of countries. Founded on 14 September 1960 in Baghdad by the first five members (Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Venezuela), it has, since 1965, been headquart ...
(the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) limits its members' oil production based on their "proven reserves." Saudi Arabia's published reserves have shown little change since 1980, with the main exception being an increase of about between 1987 and 1988. Matthew Simmons has suggested that Saudi Arabia is greatly exaggerating its reserves and may soon show production declines (see peak oil). From 2003 to 2013, "several key services" were privatized—municipal water supply, electricity, telecommunications—and parts of education and health care, traffic control and car accident reporting were also privatized. According to Arab News columnist Abdel Aziz Aluwaisheg, "in almost every one of these areas, consumers have raised serious concerns about the performance of these privatized entities." In November 2005, Saudi Arabia was approved as a member of the World Trade Organization. Negotiations to join had focused on the degree to which Saudi Arabia is willing to increase market access to foreign goods and in 2000, the government established the Saudi Arabian General Investment Authority to encourage foreign direct investment in the kingdom. Saudi Arabia maintains a list of sectors in which foreign investment is prohibited, but the government plans to open some closed sectors such as telecommunications, insurance, and power transmission/distribution over time. The government has also made an attempt at "Saudization, Saudizing" the economy, replacing foreign workers with Saudi nationals with limited success.#House, House, p. 161: "Over the past decade, the government has announced one plan after another to 'Saudize' the economy, but to no avail. The foreign workforce grows, and so does unemployment among Saudis. .... The previous plan called for slashing unemployment to 2.8% only to see it rise to 10.5% in 2009, the end of that plan period. Government plans in Saudi are like those in the old Soviet Union, grandiose but unmet. (Also, as in the old Soviet Union, nearly all Saudi official statistics are unreliable, so economists believe the real Saudi unemployment rate is closer to 40%)" In addition to petroleum and gas, Saudi has a significant gold mining sector in the Mahd adh Dhahab region and significant other mineral industries, an agricultural sector (especially in the southwest) based on vegetables, fruits, dates etc. and livestock, and large number of temporary jobs created by the roughly two million annual ''hajj'' pilgrims.#HT2009, Tripp, ''Culture Shock'', 2009: p. 206 Saudi Arabia has had five-year "Development Plans" since 1970. Among its plans were to launch "economic cities" (e.g. King Abdullah Economic City) in an effort to diversify the economy and provide jobs. The cities will be spread around Saudi Arabia to promote diversification for each region and their economy, and the cities are projected to contribute $150 billion to the GDP. Saudi Arabia is increasingly activating its ports in order to participate in trade between Europe and China in addition to oil transport. To this end, ports such as Jeddah Islamic Port or King Abdullah Economic City are being rapidly expanded, and investments are being made in logistics. The country is historically and currently part of the Maritime Silk Road. Statistics on poverty in the kingdom are not available through the UN resources because the Saudi government does not issue any. The Saudi state discourages calling attention to or complaining about poverty. In December 2011, the Saudi interior ministry arrested three reporters and held them for almost two weeks for questioning after they uploaded a video on the topic to YouTube. Authors of the video claim that 22% of Saudis may be considered poor. Observers researching the issue prefer to stay anonymous because of the risk of being arrested. The unexpected impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in Saudi Arabia, COVID-19 pandemic on the economy, along with Saudi Arabia's poor human rights records, laid unforeseen challenges before the development plans of the kingdom, where some of the programmes under 'Saudi Vision 2030, Vision 2030' were also expected to be affected. In May 2020, the Ministry of Finance (Saudi Arabia), Finance Minister of Saudi Arabia admitted that the country's economy was facing a severe economical crisis for the first time in decades, because of the pandemic as well as declining global oil markets. Mohammed Al-Jadaan said that the country will take "painful" measures and keep all options open to deal with the impact. On July 2024 Saudi Arabia's Renewable Energy Localisation Company (RELC) has formed three joint ventures with Chinese companies to advance the kingdom's clean energy infrastructure. As part of Saudi Arabia's 2030 targets, the Public Investment Fund is actively promoting the localization of renewable energy components. RELC, a division of the sovereign fund, facilitates partnerships between global manufacturers and Saudi private sector firms to strengthen local supply chains. The joint ventures include partnerships with Envision Energy for wind turbine components, Jinko Solar for photovoltaic cells, and Lumetech for solar photovoltaic ingots and wafers. These initiatives aim to localize up to 75% of the components used in Saudi Arabia's renewable projects by 2030, positioning the country as a major global exporter of renewable technologies. Saudi Minister of Economy and Planning, Faisal Al Ibrahim, emphasized Saudi Arabia's progress in global climate goals at the 2024 High-Level Political Forum for Sustainable Development in New York, citing over 80 initiatives and investments exceeding $180 billion for the country's green economy, as reported by Saudi Gazette. He highlighted the alignment of these efforts with Vision 2030 objectives, focusing on local sustainability, sector integration, and societal advancement.


Agriculture

Initial attempts to develop dairy farming on a commercial scale occurred in the Al Kharj District (just south of Riyadh) during the 1950s. Serious large-scale agricultural development began in the 1970s, particularly with wheat. The government launched an extensive programme to promote modern farming technology; to establish rural roads, irrigation networks and storage and export facilities; and to encourage agricultural research and training institutions. As a result, there has been a phenomenal growth in the production of all basic foods. Saudi Arabia is self-sufficient in numerous foodstuffs, including meat, milk, and eggs. The country exports dates, dairy products, eggs, fish, poultry, fruits, vegetables, and flowers. Dates, once a staple of the Saudi diet, are now mainly grown for global humanitarian aid. In addition, Saudi farmers grow substantial amounts of other grains such as barley, sorghum, and millet. As of 2016, in the interest of preserving precious water resources, domestic production of wheat, which it used to export, ended. Consuming non-renewable groundwater resulted in the loss of an estimated four-fifths of the total groundwater reserves by 2012. The kingdom has some of the most modern and largest dairy farms in the Middle East. Milk production boasts a remarkably productive annual rate of per cow, one of the highest in the world. The local dairy manufacturing company Almarai is the largest vertically integrated dairy company in the Middle East. The olive tree is indigenous to Saudi Arabia. The Al-Jawf Province, Al Jouf region has millions of olive trees, and the number is expected to increase to 20 million trees. As part of the country's ongoing plan to plant 100 Mangrove seedlings along its coastlines, the National Centre for Vegetation Cover Development and Combating Desertification has announced that it has planted 13M seedlings.


Water supply and sanitation

One of the main challenges for Saudi Arabia is water scarcity. Substantial investments have been undertaken in seawater desalination, water distribution, sewerage and wastewater treatment. Today about 50% of drinking water comes from desalination, 40% from the mining of non-renewable groundwater, and 10% from surface water in the mountainous southwest of the country. Saudi Arabia is suffering from a major depletion of the water in its underground aquifers and a resultant break down and disintegration of its agriculture as a consequence. As a result of the catastrophe, Saudi Arabia has bought agricultural land in the United States, Argentina, and Africa. Saudi Arabia ranked as a major buyer of agricultural land in foreign countries. According to the Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation, Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) for Water Supply and Sanitation of the WHO and UNICEF, the latest reliable source on access to water and sanitation in Saudi Arabia is the 2004 census. It indicates that 97% of the population had access to an improved source of drinking water and 99% had access to improved sanitation. For 2015, the JMP estimates that access to sanitation increased to 100%. Sanitation was primarily through on-site solutions, and about 40% of the population was connected to sewers. In 2015, 886,000 people lacked access to "improved" water.


Tourism

In 2019, Saudi Arabia adopted a general tourism travel visa to allow non-Muslims to visit. Although most tourism largely involves religious pilgrimages, there is growth in the leisure tourism sector. According to the World Bank, approximately 14.3 million people visited Saudi Arabia in 2012, making it the world's 19th-most-visited country. Tourism is an important component of the Saudi Vision 2030, and according to a report conducted by BMI Research in 2018 both religious and non-religious tourism have significant potential for expansion. The kingdom offers an electronic visa for foreign visitors to attend sports events and concerts. In 2019, the kingdom announced its plans to open visa applications for visitors, where people from about 50 countries would be able to get tourist visas to Saudi. In 2020 it was announced that holders of a US, UK or Schengen Area, Schengen visa are eligible for a Saudi electronic visa upon arrival. File:1قرية ذي عين.jpg, Thee Ain village located in Al-Bahah Province, Al Bahah Province File:Rub al khalid sunset nov 07.JPG, The desert of Rub' al Khali, ''Al-Rub' Al-Khali'' (The Empty Quarter) File:Elephant Rock 2020.jpg, Elephant Rock in Al-'Ula File:The Red Sea seen from the Ummahat Islands, Saudi Arabia.jpg, Ummahat islands, The Red Sea Project File:Soudah Mountain.png, Jabal Soudah () located in the Asir Mountains, 'Asir subrange of the Sarawat Mountains, Sarat Mountains File:Al-Naseef House (6573572949).jpg, Nasseef House, Naseef House in Al-Balad, Jeddah, Historic Jeddah District File:At-Turaif District of Diriyah, Saudi Arabia.jpg, Salwa Palace in At-Turaif District, Diriyah File:Masmak Fort (12753717253).jpg, Masmak Fort in the Al Dirah (Riyadh), al-Dirah neighbourhood of
Riyadh Riyadh (, ar, الرياض, 'ar-Riyāḍ, Literal translation, lit.: 'The Gardens' Najdi Arabic, Najdi pronunciation: ), formerly known as Hajr al-Yamamah, is the capital and largest city of Saudi Arabia. It is also the capital of the Riyad ...
File:Rijal Almaa During the Day 2020.jpg, Rijal Almaa historic village File:Hegra, Al-Ula, Saudi Arabia.png, Qasr al-Farid Tomb in Hegra (Mada'in Salih), Mada'in Salih File:Al-Rifai House 2021.jpg, Al-Rifai House gate in Farasan Islands


Demographics

Saudi Arabia's reported population is 32,175,224 as of 2022, making it the fourth most populous country in the
Arab world The Arab world ( ar, اَلْعَالَمُ الْعَرَبِيُّ '), formally the Arab homeland ( '), also known as the Arab nation ( '), the Arabsphere, or the Arab states, refers to a vast group of countries, mainly located in Western A ...
. Close to 42% of its inhabitants are immigrants, mostly from the Middle East, Asia, and Africa. The Saudi population has grown rapidly since 1950, when it was estimated at 3 million. For much of the 20th century, the country had one of the highest population growth rates in the world, at around 3% annually;#Long, Long, p. 27 it continues to grow at a rate of 1.62% per year, slightly higher than the rest of the Middle East and North Africa. Consequently, the Saudi Youth in Saudi Arabia, people are quite young by global standards, with over half the population under 25 years old, The ethnic composition of Saudi citizens is 90%
Arab The Arabs (singular: Arab; singular ar, عَرَبِيٌّ, DIN 31635: , , plural ar, عَرَب, DIN 31635, DIN 31635: , Arabic pronunciation: ), also known as the Arab people, are an ethnic group mainly inhabiting the Arab world in Wester ...
and 10% Afro-Arab. Most Saudis are concentrated in the southwest; Hejaz, which is the most populated region, is home to one-third of the population, followed by neighbouring Najd (28%) and the Eastern Province (15%). As late as 1970, most Saudis lived a subsistence life in the rural provinces, but in the last half of the 20th century, the kingdom has urbanized rapidly: as of 2023, about 85% of Saudis live in urban metropolitan areas—specifically Riyadh, Jeddah, and Dammam.As recently as the early 1960s, Saudi Arabia's slave population was estimated at . History of slavery in the Muslim world, Slavery was officially abolished in 1962.


Language

The official language is
Arabic Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C. E.Watson; Walte ...
.Saudi Arabia
''The World Factbook''. Central Intelligence Agency.
There are four main regional dialect groups spoken by Saudis: Najdi Arabic, Najdi (about 14.6 million speakers), Hejazi Arabic, Hejazi (about 10.3 million speakers), Gulf Arabic, Gulf (about 0.96 million speakers) including Bahrani Arabic, Baharna dialects, and Southern Hejaz and Tihama dialects. Faifi language, Faifi is spoken by about . The Mehri language is also spoken by around Mehri people, Mehri citizens. Saudi Sign Language is the principal language of the deaf community, amounting to around speakers. The large expatriate communities also speak their own languages, the most numerous of which, according to 2018 data, are Bengali language, Bengali (~1 ), Tagalog language, Tagalog (~), Punjabi language, Punjabi (~), Urdu (~), Egyptian Arabic (~), Rohingya language, Rohingya, North Levantine Arabic (both ~) and Malayalam.


Religion

Virtually all Saudi citizens and residents Islam in Saudi Arabia, are Muslim;Mapping the World Muslim Population
(October 2009), Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life. p. 16 (p. 17 of the PDF).
by law, all citizens of the country are Muslim. Estimates of the Sunni population range between 85% and 90%, with the remaining 10 to 15% being Shia Islam in Saudi Arabia, Shia Muslim,Nasr, ''Shia Revival'', (2006) p. 236 practicing either Twelver Shi'ism or Sulaymani, Sulaymani Ismailism. The official and dominant form of Sunni Islam is Salafism, commonly known as Wahhabism,The Daily Star
, Lamine Chikhi, 27 November 2010.
which was founded in the Arabian Peninsula by Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab in the 18th century. Other denominations, such as the minority Shia Islam, are systematically suppressed. Shia Islam in Saudi Arabia, Shia Muslims in Saudi Arabia are largely found in the Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia, Eastern Province, particularly in Qatif and Al-Ahsa Governorate, Al–Ahsa. There are an estimated 1.5 million Christianity in Saudi Arabia, Christians in Saudi Arabia, almost all foreign workers. Saudi Arabia allows Christians to enter the country as temporary foreign workers but does not allow them to practice their faith openly. There are officially no Saudi citizens who are Christians, as Saudi Arabia forbids religious conversion from Islam (Apostasy in Saudi Arabia, apostasy) and punishes it by death. According to the Pew Research Center, there are Hinduism in Saudi Arabia, Hindus in Saudi Arabia, almost all foreign workers. There may be a significant fraction of Atheism, atheists and Agnosticism, agnostics,WIN-Gallup 201
Global Index of Religion and atheism
although they are officially called "terrorists". In its 2017 religious freedom report, the U.S. State Department named Saudi Arabia a Country of Particular Concern, denoting systematic, ongoing, and egregious violations of religious freedom. Najran was home to local Christian community of Najran, Christian and History of the Jews in Saudi Arabia, Jewish communities. Prior to establishment of
Israel Israel (; he, יִשְׂרָאֵל, ; ar, إِسْرَائِيل, ), officially the State of Israel ( he, מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל, label=none, translit=Medīnat Yīsrāʾēl; ), is a country in Western Asia. It is situated ...
, Najran was home to 260 Jews and had friendly relations with
Ibn Saud Abdulaziz bin Abdul Rahman Al Saud ( ar, عبد العزيز بن عبد الرحمن آل سعود, ʿAbd al ʿAzīz bin ʿAbd ar Raḥman Āl Suʿūd; 15 January 1875Ibn Saud's birth year has been a source of debate. It is generally accepted ...
. They had a Yemenite Jews, Yemenite Jewish background. After the establishment of Israel and the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, 1948 Arab–Israeli war, all the Jews fled for
Yemen Yemen (; ar, ٱلْيَمَن, al-Yaman), officially the Republic of Yemen,, ) is a country in Western Asia. It is situated on the southern end of the Arabian Peninsula, and borders Saudi Arabia to the north and Oman to the northeast an ...
and from there headed to Israel.


Education

Education is free at all levels, although Higher education in Saudi Arabia, higher education is restricted to citizens only. The school system is composed of List of schools in Saudi Arabia, elementary, intermediate, and secondary schools. Classes are segregated by sex. At the secondary level, students are able to choose from three types of schools: general education, vocational and List of technical colleges in Saudi Arabia, technical, or religious. The rate of literacy is 99% among males and 96% among females in 2020. Youth literacy rose to approximately 99.5% for both sexes. Higher education has expanded rapidly, with large numbers of List of universities and colleges in Saudi Arabia, universities and colleges being founded particularly since 2000. Institutions of higher education include King Saud University, the Islamic University of Madinah, Islamic University at Medina, and the King Abdulaziz University in Jeddah. Princess Nora bint Abdul Rahman University, Princess Norah University is the largest women's university in the world. King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, known as KAUST, is the first mixed-gender university campus in Saudi Arabia and was founded in 2009. Other colleges and universities emphasize curricula in sciences and Educational technology in Saudi Arabia, technology, military studies, religion, and medicine. Institutes devoted to Islamic studies, in particular, abound. Women typically receive college instruction in segregated institutions. The ''Academic Ranking of World Universities'', known as Shanghai Ranking, ranked five Saudi institutions among its 2022 list of the 500 top universities in the world. The QS World University Rankings lists 14 Saudi universities among the 2022 world's top universities and 23 universities among the top 100 in the
Arab world The Arab world ( ar, اَلْعَالَمُ الْعَرَبِيُّ '), formally the Arab homeland ( '), also known as the Arab nation ( '), the Arabsphere, or the Arab states, refers to a vast group of countries, mainly located in Western A ...
. The 2022 list of U.S. News & World Report Best Global University Ranking ranked King Abdulaziz University among the top 50 universities in the world and King Abdullah University of Science and Technology among the top 100 universities in the world. In 2018, Saudi Arabia ranked 28th worldwide in terms of high-quality research output according to the scientific journal ''Nature (journal), Nature.'' This makes Saudi Arabia the best performing Middle Eastern, Arab, and Muslim country. Saudi Arabia spends 8.8% of its gross domestic product on education, compared with the global average of 4.6%. Saudi Arabia was ranked 48th in the Global Innovation Index in 2023, up from 68th in 2019. The Saudi education system has been accused of encouraging Islamic terrorism, leading to reform efforts.Reforming Saudi Education
Slate 7 September. 2009.
Following the 9/11 attacks, the government aimed to tackle the twin problems of encouraging extremism and the inadequacy of the country's university education for a modern economy, by slowly modernizing the education system through the "Tatweer" reform programme. The Tatweer programme is reported to have a budget of approximately US$2 billion and focuses on moving teaching away from the traditional Saudi methods of memorization and rote learning towards encouraging students to analyse and problem-solve. It also aims to create an education system which will provide a more secular and vocationally based training."Saudi Arabia's Education Reforms Emphasize Training for Jobs"
''The Chronicle of Higher Education'', 3 October 2010.
In 2021, the ''Washington Post'' reported on the measures taken by Saudi Arabia to clean textbooks from paragraphs considered Antisemitism, antisemitic and Sexism, sexist. The paragraphs dealing with the punishment of homosexuality or same-sex relations have been deleted, and expressions of admiration for the extremist martyrdom. Antisemitic expressions and calls to fight the Jews became fewer. David Weinberg, director of international affairs for the Anti-Defamation League, said that references to demonizing Jews, Christians, and Shiites have been removed from some places or have toned down. The U.S. State Department expressed in an email that it welcomed the changes. The Saudi Ministry of Foreign Affairs supports a training programme for Saudi teachers.


Health care

Saudi Arabia has a national health care system in which the government provides free health care services through government agencies. Saudi Arabia has been ranked among the 26 best countries in providing high quality healthcare. The Ministry of Health (Saudi Arabia), Ministry of Health is the major government agency entrusted with the provision of preventive, curative, and rehabilitative health care. The ministry's origins can be traced to 1925, when several regional health departments were established, with the first in Makkah. The various healthcare institutions were merged to become a ministerial body in 1950. The Health Ministry created a friendly competition between each of the districts and between different medical services and hospitals. This idea resulted in the creation of the "Ada'a" project launched in 2016. The new system is a nationwide performance indicator, for services and hospitals. Waiting times and other major measurements improved dramatically across the kingdom. A new strategy has been developed by the ministry, known as Diet and Physical Activity Strategy or DPAS for short, to address bad lifestyle choices. The ministry advised that there should be a tax increase on unhealthy food, drink and cigarettes. This additional tax could be used to improve healthcare offerings. The tax was implemented in 2017. As part of the same strategy, calorie labels were added in 2019 to some food and drink products. Ingredients were also listed as an aim to reduce obesity and inform citizens with health issues, to manage their diet. As part of the ongoing focus on tackling obesity, women-only gyms were allowed to open in 2017. Sports offered in each of these gyms include bodybuilding, running and swimming to maintain higher standards of health. Smoking in Saudi Arabia, Smoking in all age groups is widespread. In 2009 the lowest median percentage of smokers was university students (~13.5%) while the highest was elderly people (~25%). The study also found the median percentage of male smokers to be much higher than that of females (~26.5% for males, ~9% for females). Before 2010, Saudi Arabia had no policies banning or restricting smoking. The MOH has been awarded "Healthy City" certificates by the World Health Organization (WHO) for the cities of Unayzah and Riyadh Al Khabra as 4th and 5th Healthy Cities in Saudi Arabia. The WHO had earlier classified three Saudi Arabian cities, Ad Diriyah, Jalajil, and Al-Jamoom as "Healthy city", as part of the WHO Healthy Cities Programme. Recently Al-Baha has also been classified as a healthy city to join the list of global healthy cities approved by the World Health Organization. In May 2019, the then Saudi Minister of Health Tawfig AlRabiah, Tawfiq bin Fawzan AlRabiah received a global award on behalf of the Kingdom for combatting smoking through social awareness, treatment, and application of regulations. The award was presented as part of the 72nd session of the World Health Assembly, held in Geneva in May 2019. After becoming one of the first nations to ratify the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control in 2005, it plans to reduce tobacco use from 12.7% in 2017, to 5% in 2030. Saudi Arabia has a life expectancy of 74.99 years (73.79 for males and 76.61 for females) according to the latest data for the year 2018 from the World Bank. Infant mortality in 2019 was 5.7 per . In 2016, 69.7% of the adult population was overweight and 35.5% was obese.


Foreigners

The Central Department of Statistics & Information estimated the foreign population at the end of 2014 at 33% (10.1 million). The CIA Factbook estimated that foreign nationals living in Saudi Arabia made up about 21% of the population. Other sources report differing estimates. Indians in Saudi Arabia, Indian: 1.5 million, Pakistanis in Saudi Arabia, Pakistani: 1.3 million, Egyptian: , Yemeni: , Bangladeshis in Saudi Arabia, Bangladeshi: , Filipinos in Saudi Arabia, Filipino: , Jordanian/Palestinian: , Indonesians in Saudi Arabia, Indonesian: , Sri Lankan: , Sudanese: , Syrians in Saudi Arabia, Syrian: and Turks in Saudi Arabia, Turkish: . According to ''The Guardian'', there were more than half a million Migrant domestic workers, foreign-born domestic workers. Most have backgrounds in poverty and come from Africa, the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia. To go to work in Saudi Arabia, they must often pay large sums to recruitment agencies in their home countries. The agencies then handle the necessary legal paperwork. As the Saudi population grows and oil export revenues stagnate, pressure for "Saudization" (the replacement of foreign workers with Saudis) has grown, and the Saudi government hopes to decrease the number of foreign nationals in the country. Saudi Arabia expelled Yemenis in 1990 and 1991 and has built a Saudi–Yemen barrier against an influx of illegal immigrants and against the smuggling of drugs and weapons. In November 2013, Saudi Arabia expelled thousands of illegal Ethiopian residents from the kingdom. Various Human Rights entities have criticized Saudi Arabia's handling of the issue. Over Illegal immigration to Saudi Arabia, undocumented migrant workers—mostly from Somalia, Ethiopia, and Yemen—have been detained and deported since 2013. An investigation led by ''The Sunday Telegraph'', exposed the condition of African migrants who were detained in Saudi Arabia allegedly for containing Coronavirus disease 2019, COVID-19 in the kingdom. They were beaten, tortured, and electrocuted. Many of the migrants died due to heatstroke or by attempting suicide, after being severely beaten and tortured. The migrants lack proper living conditions, provision of food and water. Foreigners cannot apply for permanent residency, though a specialized Premium Residency visa became available in 2019. Only Muslims can become Saudi citizens. Foreigners who have resided in the kingdom and hold degrees in various scientific fields may apply for Saudi citizenship, and exception made for Palestinians who are excluded unless married to a male Saudi national, because of Arab League instructions barring the Arab states from granting them citizenship. Saudi Arabia is not a signatory to the Convention relating to the Status of Refugees, 1951 UN Refugee Convention.


Culture

Saudi Arabia has millennia-old attitudes and traditions, often derived from History of the Arabs, Arab civilization. Some of the major factors that influence the culture are Islamic heritage and
Arab The Arabs (singular: Arab; singular ar, عَرَبِيٌّ, DIN 31635: , , plural ar, عَرَب, DIN 31635, DIN 31635: , Arabic pronunciation: ), also known as the Arab people, are an ethnic group mainly inhabiting the Arab world in Wester ...
traditions as well as its historical role as an ancient trade centre. The Kingdom also has a very family-oriented culture with an emphasis on preserving family traditions and kinship ties.


Religion in society

Religion is a core aspect of everyday life in Saudi Arabia; it plays a dominant role in the country's governance and legal system, and deeply influences culture and daily life, although the power of the religious establishment has been significantly eroded in the 2010s. The Hejaz region, where the holiest sites in Islam, Islamic holy cities of Mecca and Medina are located, is the destination of the Hajj, Ḥajj pilgrimage, and often deemed to be the cradle of Islam.Arabia: the Cradle of Islam
1900, S.M.Zwemmer
Islam is the state religion of Saudi Arabia. There is no law that requires all citizens to be Muslim, but non-Muslims and many foreign and Saudi Muslims whose beliefs are deemed not to conform with the government's interpretation of Islam must practice their religion in private and are vulnerable to discrimination, harassment, detention, and, for foreigners, deportation. Neither Saudi citizens nor guest workers have the right of freedom of religion. The dominant form of Islam in the kingdom—Wahhabism—arose in the central region of Najd, in the 18th century. Proponents call the movement "Salafism", and believe that its teachings purify the practice of Islam of innovations or practices that deviate from the seventh-century teachings of Muhammad and Sahaba, his companions. The Saudi government has often been viewed as an active oppressor of Shia Islam, Shia Muslims because of the funding of the Wahhabi ideology which denounces the Shia faith. Prince Bandar bin Sultan, Saudi ambassador to the United States, stated: "The time is not far off in the Middle East when it will be literally 'God help the Shia'. More than a billion Sunnis have simply had enough of them." Saudi Arabia is one of the few countries that have "Committee for the Promotion of Virtue and the Prevention of Vice (Saudi Arabia), religious police" (known as ''Haia'' or ''Mutaween''), who patrol the streets "enjoining good and forbidding wrong" by enforcing Clothing laws by country, dress codes, strict sex segregation, separation of men and women, attendance at prayer (''salat'') five times each day, the ban on alcohol, and other aspects of ''Sharia.'' However, since 2016 the power of religious police was curbed, which barred them from pursuing, questioning, requesting identification or arresting suspects. In the privacy of homes, behaviour can be far looser, and reports from WikiLeaks indicate that low ranked members of the ruling Saudi Royal family indulge in parties with alcohol, drugs, and prostitutes.


Women in society

Throughout history, women did not have equal rights to men in the kingdom; the U.S. State Department considers Saudi Arabian government's discrimination against women a "significant problem" and notes that women have few political rights because of the government's discriminatory policies. However, since Mohammed bin Salman was appointed Crown Prince in 2017, a series of social reforms have been witnessed regarding women's rights. Under previous Saudi law, all females were required to have a male guardian (), typically a father, brother, husband, or uncle (). In 2019, this law was partially amended to exclude women over 21 years old from the requirement of a male guardian. The amendment also granted women rights in relation to the guardianship of minor children. Previously, girls and women were forbidden from travelling, conducting official business, or undergoing certain medical procedures without permission from their male guardians. In 2019, Saudi Arabia allowed women to travel abroad, register for divorce or marriage, and apply for official documents without the permission of a male guardian. In 2006, Wajeha al-Huwaider, a leading Saudi feminist and journalist said "Saudi women are weak, no matter how high their status, even the 'pampered' ones among them, because they have no law to protect them from attack by anyone." Following this, Saudi Arabia implemented the anti-Domestic violence in Saudi Arabia, domestic violence law in 2014. Furthermore, between 2017 and 2020, the country addressed issues of mobility, sexual harassment, pensions, and employment-discrimination protections. al-Huwaider and other female activists have applauded the general direction in which the country was headed. Women face discrimination in the courts, where the testimony of one man equals that of two women Legal system of Saudi Arabia#Family law, in family and inheritance law. Polygamy is permitted for men, and men have a unilateral right to divorce their wives (Divorce (Islamic), talaq) without needing any legal justification.#Otto, Otto, p. 164 A woman can only obtain a divorce with the consent of her husband or judicially if her husband has harmed her.#Otto, Otto, p. 163 However, in 2022, women were granted the right to divorce and without the approval of a legal guardian under the new Personal Status Law. With regard to the law of inheritance, the Quran specifies that fixed portions of the deceased's estate must be left to the ''Qur'anic heirs''#Otto, Otto, p. 165 and generally, female heirs receive half the portion of male heirs.


Heritage sites

Saudi Wahhabism is hostile to any reverence given to historical or religious places of significance for fear that it may give rise to Shirk (Islam), 'shirk' (idolatry), and the most significant historic Muslim sites (in Mecca and Medina) are located in the western Saudi region of the Hejaz. As a consequence, under Saudi rule an estimated 95% of Mecca's historic buildings, most over a thousand years old, Destruction of early Islamic heritage sites in Saudi Arabia, have been demolished for religious reasons. Critics claim that over the last 50 years, 300 historic sites linked to Muhammad, his family or companions have been lost, leaving fewer than 20 structures remaining in Mecca that date back to the time of Muhammad.'Shame of the House of Saud: Shadows over Mecca'
The Independent, 19 April 2006
Demolished structures include the mosque originally built by Muhammad's daughter Fatima bint Muhammad, Fatima, and other mosques founded by Abu Bakr (Muhammad's father-in-law and the first caliph), Umar ibn al-Khattab, Umar (the second caliph), Ali ibn Abi Talib, Ali (Muhammad's son-in-law and the fourth caliph), and Salman al-Farsi (another of Muhammad's companions).Seven cultural sites in Saudi Arabia are designated as UNESCO World Heritage Sites: Al-Hijr Archaeological Site (Mada'in Saleh, Madâin Sâlih); the Turaif district in Diriyah; Historic Jeddah, the Gate to Mecca; Al-Ahsa Oasis; Rock Art in the Ha'il Region, Rock Art in the Hail Region; Bir Hima Rock Petroglyphs and Inscriptions, Ḥimā Cultural Area; and 'Uruq Bani Ma'arid. Ten other sites submitted requests for recognition to UNESCO in 2015. There are six elements inscribed on UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists, UNESCO's Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity list: Al-Qatt Al-Asiri, female traditional interior wall decoration in Asir; Almezmar in Saudi Arabia, Almezmar, drumming and dancing with sticks; Falconry, a living human heritage; Arabic coffee, a symbol of generosity; Majlis, a cultural and social space; Alardah Alnajdiyah, dance, drumming and poetry in Saudi Arabia. In June 2014, the Council of Ministers approved a law that gives the Saudi Commission for Tourism and National Heritage the means to protect Saudi Arabia's ancient relics and historic sites. Within the framework of the 2016 National Transformation Programme, also known as Saudi Vision 2030, the kingdom allocated 900 million euros to preserve its historical and cultural heritage. Saudi Arabia also participates in the International Alliance for the Protection of Heritage in Conflict Areas, created in March 2017, with a contribution of 18.5 million euros. In 2017, Crown Prince Mohammad bin Salman promised to return Saudi Arabia to the "moderate Islam" of the era before the 1979 Iranian revolution. A new centre, the King Salman Complex for the Prophet's Hadith, was established that year to monitor interpretations of the Prophet Mohammed's hadiths to prevent them being used to justifying terrorism. In March 2018, the Crown Prince met the Archbishop of Canterbury during a visit to the UK, pledging to promote interfaith dialogue. In Riyadh the following month King Salman met the head of the Vatican's Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue. In July 2019, UNESCO signed a letter with the Saudi Minister of Culture in which Saudi Arabia contributed US$25 million to UNESCO for the preservation of heritage.


Dress

Saudi Arabian dress strictly follows the principles of hijab (the Islamic principle of modesty, especially in dress). The predominantly loose and flowing, but covering, garments are suited to Saudi Arabia's desert climate. Traditionally, men usually wear a white ankle-length garment woven from wool or cotton (known as a thawb), with a keffiyeh (a large checkered square of cotton held in place by an Agal (accessory), agal) or a ghutra (a plain white square made of a finer cotton, also held in place by an Agal (accessory), agal) worn on the head. For rare chilly days, Saudi men wear a camel-hair cloak (bisht (clothing), bisht) over the top. In public women are required to wear a black abaya or other black clothing that covers everything under the neck with the exception of their hands and feet, although most women cover their head in respect of their religion. This requirement applies to non-Muslim women too and failure to abide can result in police action, particularly in more conservative areas of the country. Women's clothes are often decorated with tribal motifs, coins, sequins, metallic thread, and appliques.


Arts and entertainment

During the 1970s, cinemas were numerous in the kingdom although they were seen as contrary to Wahhabi norms.World Focus
5 January 2009
During the Islamic revival movement in the 1980s, and as a political response to an increase in Islamist activism including the 1979 seizure of the Grand Mosque in Mecca, the government closed all cinemas and theatres. However, with King Abdullah and King Salman's reforms, cinemas re-opened, including one in King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, KAUST. From the 18th century onward, Wahhabi fundamentalism discouraged artistic development inconsistent with its teaching. In addition, Sunni Islamic prohibition of creating representations of people have limited the visual arts, which tend to be dominated by Islamic geometric patterns, geometric, Arabesque, floral, and abstract designs and by Islamic calligraphy, calligraphy. With the advent of the oil-wealth in the 20th century came exposure to outside influences, such as Western housing styles, furnishings, and clothes. Music and dance have always been part of Saudi life. Traditional music is generally associated with poetry and is sung collectively. Instruments include the Rebab, rabābah, an instrument not unlike a three-string fiddle, and various types of percussion instruments, such as the ṭabl (drum) and the ṭār (tambourine). The national dance is a native sword dance known as ardah. Originating from Najd, it involves lines or circles of men and singing poetry. Bedouin poetry, known as nabaṭī, is popular. Censorship has limited the development of Saudi literature, although several List of Saudi Arabian writers, Saudi novelists and poets have achieved critical and popular acclaim in the Arab world—albeit generating official hostility in their home country. These include Ghazi Algosaibi, Mansour al-Nogaidan, Abdelrahman Munif, Turki al-Hamad and Rajaa al-Sanea. In 2016, the General Entertainment Authority (GEA) was formed to oversee the expansion of the Saudi entertainment sector. The first concerts in Riyadh for 25 years took place the following year. Other events since the GEA's creation have included comedy shows, professional wrestling events and monster truck rallies. In 2018 the first public cinema opened after a ban of 35 years, with plans to have more than screens running by 2030. Developments in the arts in 2018 included Saudi Arabia's debut appearances at the Cannes Film Festival and the Venice Biennale.


TV and media

Television was introduced in Saudi Arabia in 1954. Saudi Arabia is a major market for Pan-Arab States, pan-Arab satellite and Pay television, pay-TV. It controls the largest share of the pan-Arab broadcasting market; among the major Saudi-owned broadcasting companies are the MBC Group, Middle East Broadcasting Center, Rotana Group, Rotana and the Saudi Broadcasting Authority. The Saudi government Censorship in Saudi Arabia, closely monitors media and restricts it under official state law. Changes have been made to lessen these restrictions; however, some government-led efforts to control information have also drawn international attention. As of 2022, Reporters Without Borders rates the kingdom's press a "very serious" situation. Most of the early newspapers in the Persian Gulf region were established in Saudi Arabia. The first newspaper founded in the country and in the Persian Gulf area is ''Al Fallah'', which was launched in 1920, and the first English-language newspaper is ''Arab News'', which was launched in 1975. All of the List of newspapers in Saudi Arabia, newspapers published in Saudi Arabia are privately owned. According to World Bank, as of 2020, 98% of the population of Saudi Arabia are internet users which puts it in the 8th rank among countries with the highest percentage of internet users. Saudi Arabia has one of the fastest 5G internet speeds in the world. The kingdom is the 27th largest market for e-commerce with a revenue of US$8 billion in 2021.


Cuisine

Saudi Arabian cuisine is similar to that of the surrounding countries in the Arabian Peninsula and the wider Arab world, and has influenced and been influenced by Turkish, Indian, Persian, and African food. Islamic dietary laws are enforced: pork is not allowed, and other animals are slaughtered in accordance with halal. Kebab, Kebabs and falafel are popular, as is shawarma, a marinated grilled meat dish of lamb, mutton, or chicken. Kabsa, a rice dish with lamb, chicken, fish or shrimp, is among the national dishes as is mandi (food), mandi. Flat, unleavened taboon bread is a staple of virtually every meal, as are dates, fresh fruit, yoghurt, and hummus. Coffee, served in the Arabic coffee, Arabic style, is the traditional beverage, but tea and various fruit juices are popular as well. The earliest substantiated evidence of either history of coffee, coffee drinking or knowledge of the coffee tree is from the 15th century, in the Sufi monasteries of Arabia.


Sport

Football in Saudi Arabia, Football is the national sport in Saudi Arabia. The Saudi Arabia national football team is considered one of Asia's most successful national teams, having reached a joint record six AFC Asian Cup finals, winning three of those finals (1984 AFC Asian Cup final, 1984, 1988 AFC Asian Cup final, 1988, and 1996 AFC Asian Cup final, 1996) and Saudi Arabia at the FIFA World Cup, having qualified for the World Cup four consecutive times ever since debuting at the 1994 tournament. In the 1994 FIFA World Cup under the leadership of Jorge Solari, Saudi Arabia beat both Belgium and Morocco in the group stage before falling to defeat Sweden in the round of 16. During the 1992 King Fahd Cup, 1992 FIFA Confederations Cup, which was played in Saudi Arabia, the country reached the 1992 King Fahd Cup Final, final, losing 1–3 to Argentina. Scuba diving, windsurfing, sailing and basketball (which is played by both men and women) are also popular with the Saudi Arabia national basketball team, Saudi Arabian national basketball team winning bronze at the 1999 ABC Championship, 1999 Asian Championship. More traditional sports such as horse racing and camel racing are also popular. The annual King's Camel Race, begun in 1974, is one of the sport's most important contests and attracts animals and riders from throughout the region. Falconry is another traditional pursuit. Women's sport in Saudi Arabia, Women's sport is controversial because of the suppression of female participation in sport by conservative Islamic religious authorities, however the restrictions have eased. Until 2018 women were not permitted in sport stadiums. Segregated seating, allowing women to enter, has been developed in three stadiums across major cities. Since 2020, the progress of women's integration into the Saudi sport scene began to develop rapidly. 25 Saudi sport federations established a national women's team, including a national Saudi Arabia women's national football team, football and Saudi Arabia women's national basketball team, basketball team. In November 2020, the Saudi Arabian Football Federation announced the launch of the first nationwide Saudi Women's Premier League, Saudi women's premier league. In its vision for modernization the nation has introduced many international sporting events, bringing sports stars to the kingdom. However, in August 2019, the kingdom's strategy received criticism for appearing as a method of sportswashing soon after Saudi's US-based 2018 lobbying campaign foreign registration documentations got published online. The documents showed Saudi Arabia as allegedly implementing a sportswashing strategy, including meetings and official calls with authorities of associations like Major League Soccer, WWE in Saudi Arabia, World Wrestling Entertainment, and the National Basketball Association.


See also

* Index of Saudi Arabia–related articles * Outline of Saudi Arabia


Notes


References


Bibliography

* * * * * * * * * * * Available at

* , especially Chapter 8: Saudi Arabia—Religion, Gender, and the Desire for Democracy. In: The Future of the Gulf Region. Gulf Studies, vol 2. Springer, Cham
The Future of the Gulf Region: Value Change and Global Cycles
* *


External links


Saudi Arabia
official government website.
Saudi Arabia
''The World Factbook''. Central Intelligence Agency. *
Saudi Arabia profile
from the BBC News * *
Key Development Forecasts for Saudi Arabia
from International Futures {{coord, 24, N, 45, E, type:country_region:SA, display=title Saudi Arabia, Arabian Peninsula Countries and territories where Arabic is an official language G20 members Kingdoms Member states of OPEC Member states of the Arab League Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation Member states of the United Nations West Asian countries States and territories established in 1932 1932 establishments in Saudi Arabia Countries in Asia Member states of the Gulf Cooperation Council Islamic monarchies