The Saponi are a

Native American Native Americans or Native American usually refers to Native Americans in the United States. Related terms and peoples include: Ethnic groups * Indigenous peoples of the Americas, the pre-Columbian peoples of North, South, and Central America ...

tribe historically based in the Piedmont of

North Carolina North Carolina ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Southeastern United States, Southeastern region of the United States. It is bordered by Virginia to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the east, South Carolina to the south, Georgia (U.S. stat ...

and

Virginia Virginia, officially the Commonwealth of Virginia, is a U.S. state, state in the Southeastern United States, Southeastern and Mid-Atlantic (United States), Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States between the East Coast of the United States ...

.Raymond D. DeMaillie, "Tutelo and Neighboring Groups," pages 286–87. They spoke a

Siouan language Siouan ( ), also known as Siouan–Catawban ( ), is a language family of North America located primarily in the Great Plains, Ohio and Mississippi valleys and southeastern North America with a few other languages in the east. Name Authors who ...

, related to the languages of the

Tutelo The Tutelo (also Totero, Totteroy, Tutera; Yesan in Tutelo) were Native American people living above the Fall Line in present-day Virginia and West Virginia. They spoke a dialect of the Siouan Tutelo language thought to be similar to that of th ...

Biloxi Biloxi ( ; ) is a city in Harrison County, Mississippi, United States. It lies on the Gulf Coast of the United States, Gulf Coast in southern Mississippi, bordering the city of Gulfport, Mississippi, Gulfport to its west. The adjacent cities ar ...

, and Ofo. They were part of the Monacan confederacies. Saponi, Tutelo, and

Yesang The Tutelo (also Totero, Totteroy, Tutera; Yesan in Tutelo) were Native American people living above the Fall Line in present-day Virginia and West Virginia. They spoke a dialect of the Siouan Tutelo language thought to be similar to that of thei ...

were collectively called the Nahyssan.Jay Hansford C. Vest, ''An Odyssey among the Iroquois'', 124. The

Cayuga Cayuga often refers to: * Cayuga people, a native tribe to North America, part of the Iroquois Confederacy * Cayuga language, the language of the Cayuga Cayuga may also refer to: Places Canada *Cayuga, Ontario United States * Cayuga, Illinois ...

adopted the Saponi into the League of the

Haudenosaunee The Iroquois ( ), also known as the Five Nations, and later as the Six Nations from 1722 onwards; alternatively referred to by the Endonym and exonym, endonym Haudenosaunee ( ; ) are an Iroquoian languages, Iroquoian-speaking Confederation#Ind ...

in 1753.

Name

The origin and meaning of ''Saponi'', sometimes spelled Sappony, is debated. American anthropologist

John Reed Swanton John Reed Swanton (February 19, 1873 – May 2, 1958) was an American anthropologist, folklorist, and linguist who worked with Native American peoples throughout the United States. Swanton achieved recognition in the fields of ethnology and ethn ...

wrote that Saponi was "a corruption of Monasiccapano or Monasukapanough."John Reed Swanton, ''The Indian Tribes of North America'', 71. He wrote the name came from ''moni-seep'' meaning "shallow water." University of Kansas linguist

Robert L. Rankin Robert Louis Rankin (January 17, 1939 – February 24, 2014) was an American linguist and scholar of the Siouan languages. He is best known for his contributions to the preservation of the Kansa language and to the study of Proto-Siouan, the re ...

also suggested that their name derived from ''sa:p moni'' meaning "shallow water" or ''sa:p oni:'' meaning "shallow tree." Ethnographer

James Mooney James Mooney (February 10, 1861 – December 22, 1921) was an American ethnographer who lived for several years among the Cherokee. Known as "The Indian Man", he conducted major studies of Southeastern Indians, as well as of tribes on the Great ...

suggested the word might come from the Siouan term ''sapa'' meaning "black." German explorer

John Lederer John Lederer was a 17th-century German physician and an explorer of the Appalachian Mountains. He and the members of his party became the first Europeans to crest the Blue Ridge Mountains (1669) and the first to see the Shenandoah Valley and the ...

suggested their name came from Sepy, a female immortal in their religion. He wrote that either four tribes or clans were named for this spirit and three other closely related female spirits from whom the Saponi believed they descended. Evidence came from a short list of names given by the missionary

Samuel Kirkland Samuel Kirkland (December 1, 1741 – February 28, 1808) was a Presbyterian minister and missionary among the Oneida and Tuscarora peoples of central New York State. He was a long-time friend of the Oneida chief Skenandoa. Kirkland graduated ...

Language

The Saponi language, now extinct, was a

, closely related to

. The Saponi dialect is known from only two sources. One is a word list of 46 terms and phrases recorded by John Fontaine at Fort Christanna in 1716. This contains a number of items showing it to be virtually the same language as recorded by Hale. The other source is William Byrd II's ''History of the Dividing Line betwixt Virginia and North Carolina'' (1728), in which he recorded the names of some local creeks. Byrd's scant list has been found to have included several names from unrelated Indian tribes. By the time linguistic data was recorded, many related eastern Siouan tribes had settled together at

Fort Christanna Fort Christanna was one of the projects of Lt. Governor Alexander Spotswood, who was governor of the Virginia Colony 1710–1722. When Fort Christanna opened in 1714, Capt. Robert Hicks was named captain of the fort and relocated his family to ...

Brunswick County, Virginia Brunswick County is a United States county located on the southern border of the Commonwealth of Virginia. Brunswick County was created in 1720 from parts of Prince George, Surry and Isle of Wight counties. The county was named for the forme ...

, where the colonists sometimes referred to them as the Christanna Indians. In 1870, philologist

Horatio Hale Horatio Emmons Hale (May 3, 1817December 28, 1896) was an American-Canadian ethnologist, philologist and businessman. He is known for his study of languages as a key for classifying ancient peoples and being able to trace their migrations. Hale ...

recorded an elder

Nikonha Nikonha, also known as Waskiteng and Mosquito, (–1871) was known as the last full-blooded speaker of Tutelo, a Siouan language formerly spoken in Virginia. He is reported to have been around 106 years old when he died at Six Nations of the Grand ...

's information about the

Tutelo language Tutelo, also known as Tutelo– Saponi (), is a member of the Virginian branch of Siouan languages that were originally spoken in what is now Virginia and West Virginia in the United States. Most Tutelo speakers migrated north to escape warfare ...

Brantford, Ontario Brantford (Canada 2021 Census, 2021 population: 104,688) is a city in Ontario, Canada, founded on the Grand River (Ontario), Grand River in Southwestern Ontario. It is surrounded by County of Brant, Brant County but is politically separate wi ...

Territory

At the time of European contact up to the early 18th century, the Saponi lived in present-day

and

. Their settlements extended into the New River in

West Virginia West Virginia is a mountainous U.S. state, state in the Southern United States, Southern and Mid-Atlantic (United States), Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States.The United States Census Bureau, Census Bureau and the Association of American ...

. In the 17th and 18th centuries, some Saponi settled along the

Roanoke River The Roanoke River ( ) runs long through southern Virginia and northeastern North Carolina in the United States. A major river of the southeastern United States, it drains a largely rural area of the coastal plain from the eastern edge of the ...

, its tributary the

Staunton River The Roanoke River ( ) runs long through southern Virginia and northeastern North Carolina in the United States. A major river of the southeastern United States, it drains a largely rural area of the coastal plain from the eastern edge of the A ...

, and the

Yadkin River The Yadkin River is one of the longest rivers in the US state of North Carolina, flowing . It rises in the northwestern portion of the state near the Blue Ridge Parkway, Blue Ridge Parkway's Thunder Hill Overlook. Several parts of the river a ...

. Lands in the

Virginia Piedmont The Piedmont region of Virginia is a part of the greater Piedmont physiographic region which stretches from the falls of the Potomac, Rappahannock, and James Rivers to the Blue Ridge Mountains. The region runs across the middle of the state fr ...

were dominated by oak, hickory, and pine forests. In the mid-18th century, most surviving Saponi migrated to

Pennsylvania Pennsylvania, officially the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, is a U.S. state, state spanning the Mid-Atlantic (United States), Mid-Atlantic, Northeastern United States, Northeastern, Appalachian, and Great Lakes region, Great Lakes regions o ...

and

New York New York most commonly refers to: * New York (state), a state in the northeastern United States * New York City, the most populous city in the United States, located in the state of New York New York may also refer to: Places United Kingdom * ...

. Their primary town was called Saponi. In 1670 Lederer visited their nearby settlement, Pintahae, near present-day

Lynchburg, Virginia Lynchburg is an independent city (United States), independent city in the Commonwealth (U.S. state), Commonwealth of Virginia in the United States. First settled in 1757 by ferry owner and Abolitionism, abolitionist John Lynch (1740–1820), J ...

Culture

The Saponi were an Eastern Siouan people with a

matrilineal Matrilineality, at times called matriliny, is the tracing of kinship through the female line. It may also correlate with a social system in which people identify with their matriline, their mother's lineage, and which can involve the inheritan ...

society. They had settled villages and built houses of post-and-pole frames with central hearths. In the 17th century, men wore breechclouts and women wore deerhide aprons. Important leaders, such as

medicine men A medicine man (from Ojibwe ''mashkikiiwinini'') or medicine woman (from Ojibwe ''mashkikiiwininiikwe'') is a traditional healer and spiritual leader who serves a community of Indigenous people of the Americas. Each culture has its own name i ...

, wore feather cloaks. British explorer John Lawson wrote that the Saponi were governed by a headman, an elders' council, and, when necessary, a war chief.Vest, ''An Odyssey among the Iroquois'', 126. Historically, Saponi people hunted deer, bear, beaver, squirrel, turkey, and other fowl. They may have hunted woodland bison and elk. They fished in rivers and the

Atlantic Ocean The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest of the world's five borders of the oceans, oceanic divisions, with an area of about . It covers approximately 17% of Earth#Surface, Earth's surface and about 24% of its water surface area. During the ...

.Jay Hansford C. Vest, ''An Odyssey among the Iroquois'', 125. They farmed maize, beans, and squash and harvested wild plants including various nuts, berries, and stone fruits. Chiefs used staffs of

hickory Hickory is a common name for trees composing the genus ''Carya'', which includes 19 species accepted by ''Plants of the World Online''. Seven species are native to southeast Asia in China, Indochina, and northeastern India (Assam), and twelve ...

wood.

History

17th century

In 1600, James Mooney estimated there were 2,700 Saponi. English explorer Edward Bland wrote in 1650 about the "Occononacheans and Nessoneicks" living on Roanoke River. The "Nessoneicks" were Saponi.Raymond D. DeMaillie, "Tutelo and Neighboring Groups," page 291. In 1670,

visited what he described as "Sapon, a Village of the Nahyssans," who were the Saponi. Lederer wrote about the Saponi: "The nation is governed by an absolute Monarch; the People of a high stature, warlike and rich." In 1671

Thomas Batts Thomas Batts was an early settler in Virginia and an explorer of western Virginia. Early and family life Thomas Batts (also Batte) was born in Yorkshire, England, 1661, and was a son of John Batte of Oakwell Hall and Martha Mallory, daughter of ...

and Robert Fallam led an expedition that passed through several Saponi villages. After their visit, the Saponi and Tutelo moved downriver and settled with Occaneechi people.Raymond D. DeMaillie, "Tutelo and Neighboring Groups," page 292. Nathanial Bacon led an attack against the tribes in 1676. This move was likely to avoid increasing attacks from

people. Nearly decimated, the Saponi relocated to three islands at the

confluence In geography, a confluence (also ''conflux'') occurs where two or more watercourses join to form a single channel (geography), channel. A confluence can occur in several configurations: at the point where a tributary joins a larger river (main ...

of the

Dan Dan or DAN may refer to: People * Dan (name), including a list of people with the name ** Dan (king), several kings of Denmark * Dan people, an ethnic group located in West Africa ** Dan language, a Mande language spoken primarily in Côte d'Ivo ...

and Staunton rivers in Clarksville with their allies, the Occaneechi, Tutelo, and Nahyssans. In 1677, the Virginia colonial government named the Saponi as tributary Indians under the colonial governor's protection.

18th century

English explorer John Lawson wrote about the Saponi in 1701. He noted they fought against the

Seneca Seneca may refer to: People, fictional characters and language * Seneca (name), a list of people and fictional characters with the given name or surname : :* Seneca the Elder (c. 54 BC – c. AD 39), a Roman rhetorician, writer and father ...

and trapped beaver for the

fur trade The fur trade is a worldwide industry dealing in the acquisition and sale of animal fur. Since the establishment of a world fur market in the early modern period, furs of boreal ecosystem, boreal, polar and cold temperate mammalian animals h ...

. Shortly after his visit, the Saponi migrated to North Carolina.Raymond D. DeMaillie, "Tutelo and Neighboring Groups," page 293. A band of Saponi returned to Virginia in 1708. There Occaneechi and Stukanox joined them. By 1701, the Saponi and allied tribes, often collectively referred to as Nahyssan, Saponi, or Tutelo, had begun moving to the location of present-day

Salisbury, North Carolina Salisbury ( ) is a city in the Piedmont (United States), Piedmont region of North Carolina, United States; it has been the county seat of Rowan County, North Carolina, Rowan County since 1753 when its territory extended to the Mississippi River. ...

to gain distance from the colonial frontier. By 1711 they were just east of the

and west of modern

Windsor, North Carolina Windsor is a town in and the county seat of Bertie County, North Carolina, United States. The population was 3,630 at the 2010 United States Census, 2010 census, up from 2,283 in 2000 United States census, 2000. Windsor is located in North Carol ...

. In 1712, they asked Virginia to prohibit alcohol sales in their settlement. In 1714,

Alexander Spotswood Major-General Alexander Spotswood (12 December 1676 – 7 June 1740) was a British army officer, explorer and colonial administrator who served as the governor of Virginia from 1710 to 1722. After an unsatisfactory military career, in 1710 ...

, governor of the

Colony of Virginia The Colony of Virginia was a British Empire, British colonial settlement in North America from 1606 to 1776. The first effort to create an English settlement in the area was chartered in 1584 and established in 1585; the resulting Roanoke Colo ...

, resettled them in an

Indian Reservation An American Indian reservation is an area of land land tenure, held and governed by a List of federally recognized tribes in the contiguous United States#Description, U.S. federal government-recognized Native American tribal nation, whose gov ...

near Gholsonville, Virginia.Swanton, ''The Indian Tribes of North America'', 72. The tribes agreed to this for protection from hostile Haudenosaunee. In 1716, the combined Saponi, Tutelo, and

Manahoac The Manahoac, also recorded as Mahock, were a Indigenous people of the Northeastern Woodlands, who lived in northern Virginia at the time of European contact. They spoke a Siouan language and numbered approximately 1,000. They lived primarily a ...

population at the reservation was 200. Although in 1718 the

House of Burgesses The House of Burgesses () was the lower house of the Virginia General Assembly from 1619 to 1776. It existed during the colonial history of the United States in the Colony of Virginia in what was then British America. From 1642 to 1776, the Hou ...

voted to abandon the fort and school, the Siouan tribes continued to stay in that area for some time. They gradually moved away in small groups over the years 1730 to 1750. One record from 1728 indicated that Colonel

William Byrd II William Byrd II (March 28, 1674August 26, 1744) was an American planter, lawyer, surveyor and writer. Born in the English colony of Virginia, Byrd was educated in London, where he practiced law. Upon his father's death, Byrd returned to Virginia ...

made a survey of the border between Virginia and

, guided by Ned Bearskin, a Saponi hunter. Byrd noted several abandoned fields of corn, indicating serious disturbance among the local tribes. Hostilities between the Haudenosaunee and the Saponi and their neighbors ceased with the signing of the 1722 Treaty of Albany.Vest, ''An Odyssey among the Iroquois'', 128. In 1740, the majority of the Saponi and Tutelo moved to Shamokin in

. In 1753, the

Cayuga people The Cayuga ( Cayuga: Gayogo̱hó꞉nǫʼ, "People of the Great Swamp") are one of the five original constituents of the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois), a confederacy of Native Americans in New York. The Cayuga homeland lies in the Finger Lakes re ...

adopted them into their nation during the Grand Council of the Haudenosaunee. In 1711 the majority of Saponi migrated with the Cayuga to near

Ithaca, New York Ithaca () is a city in and the county seat of Tompkins County, New York, United States. Situated on the southern shore of Cayuga Lake in the Finger Lakes region of New York (state), New York, Ithaca is the largest community in the Ithaca metrop ...

, while some remained in Pennsylvania until 1778. A band with 28 adult Saponi remained near

Granville County, North Carolina Granville County is a county located on the northern border of the U.S. state of North Carolina. As of the 2020 census, the population was 60,992. Its county seat is Oxford. The county has access to Kerr Lake and Falls Lake and is part of t ...

until 1755. In 1765, Saponi settled at

Tioga Point Athens is a borough in Bradford County, Pennsylvania, United States. It is part of Northeastern Pennsylvania and is located south of the New York state line on the Susquehanna and Chemung rivers. The population was 3,749 in 1900 and 3,796 in ...

,Vest, "An Odyssey among the Iroquois," 132. where the

Chemung River The Chemung River ( ) is a tributary of the Susquehanna River, approximately long,U.S. Geological Survey. National Hydrography Dataset high-resolution flowline dataThe National Map, accessed August 8, 2011 in south central New York and northern ...

joins the

Susquehanna River The Susquehanna River ( ; Unami language, Lenape: ) is a major river located in the Mid-Atlantic (United States), Mid-Atlantic region of the United States, crossing three lower Northeastern United States, Northeast states (New York, Pennsylvani ...

in north-central Pennsylvania. They also settled as Pony Hollow, just southwest of

Newfield, New York Newfield is a town in Tompkins County, New York, United States. The population was 5,184 at the 2020 census. The town's name is derived from the many unoccupied tracts of land that were once in the town. The Town of Newfield is in the southwest ...

, which connected to other Nahyssan and Haudenosaunee communities nearby. "Pony Hollow" is a corruption of Saponi Hollow. An estimated 30 Saponi warriors lived among these communities. Shortly after the American Revolutionary War, Samuel Kirkland noted a community of them living near Fort Niagara who was later believed to have joined the Mohawk, whereas others continued into Canada alongside the Cayuga. Since most of the Iroquois sided with the British in the

American Revolutionary War The American Revolutionary War (April 19, 1775 – September 3, 1783), also known as the Revolutionary War or American War of Independence, was the armed conflict that comprised the final eight years of the broader American Revolution, in which Am ...

, after the victory by the United States, the Saponi and Tutelo who had joined the Iroquois were forced with them into exile in Canada. After that point, recorded history was silent about the tribe. Americans destroyed Saponi communities in Pennsylvania and New York in 1779. In 1779, most of the Saponi were driven to Fort Niagara, where the Saponi separated from the Tutelo, who migrated north to

Ontario, Canada Ontario is the southernmost Provinces and territories of Canada, province of Canada. Located in Central Canada, Ontario is the Population of Canada by province and territory, country's most populous province. As of the 2021 Canadian census, it ...

. Those Saponi settled in

Seneca County, New York Seneca County is a county in the U.S. state of New York. As of the 2020 census, the population was 33,814. The primary county seat is Waterloo, moved there from the original county seat of Ovid in 1819. It became a two-shire county in 1822 ...

in 1780.Swanton, ''The Indian Tribes of North America'', 73 and they were forced to cede their lands to the state of New York in 1789, but some remained in the Cayuga homelands. Distinct from the

Person County Indians The Sappony are a state-recognized tribe in North Carolina. They claim descent from the historic Saponi people, an Eastern Siouan language-speaking tribe who occupied the Piedmont of North Carolina and Virginia. They were previously called the ...

, a group of Saponi who remained in North Carolina merged with the

Tuscarora Tuscarora may refer to the following: First nations and Native American people and culture * Tuscarora people **'' Federal Power Commission v. Tuscarora Indian Nation'' (1960) * Tuscarora language, an Iroquoian language of the Tuscarora people * ...

Meherrin The Meherrin people are an Indigenous people of the Northeastern Woodlands, who spoke an Iroquian language. They lived between the Piedmont and coastal plains at the border of Virginia and North Carolina. The Meherrin Indian Tribe is a stat ...

, and

Machapunga The Machapunga were a small Algonquian language–speaking Native American tribe from coastal northeastern North Carolina.Swanton, ''The Indian Tribes of North America'', 81. They were part of the Secotan people. They were a group from the Pow ...

and migrated north into New York with them by 1802.

State-recognized tribes

has three

state-recognized tribes State-recognized tribes in the United States are Native American tribes or heritage groups that do not meet the criteria for federally recognized Indian tribes but have been recognized by state government through laws, governor's executive orders ...

that descend from the historical Saponi people. They are not currently

federally recognized This is a list of federally recognized tribes in the contiguous United States. There are also federally recognized Alaska Native tribes. , 574 Indian tribes are legally recognized by the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) of the United States.

as a

Native American tribe In the United States, an American Indian tribe, Native American tribe, Alaska Native village, Indigenous tribe, or Tribal nation may be any current or historical Tribe (Native American)#Other uses, tribe, band, or nation of Native Americans in ...

. They are: #

Haliwa-Saponi Indian Tribe The Haliwa-Saponi Indian Tribe, also the Haliwa-Saponi Tribe, is a state-recognized tribe in North Carolina. They are not federally recognized as a Native American tribe. They are headquartered in Hollister, North Carolina. Formerly named the H ...

, based in Halifax and Warren counties #

Occaneechi Band of the Saponi Nation The Occaneechi Band of the Saponi Nation is a state-recognized tribe in North Carolina. They first formed as the Eno Occaneechi Indian Association in 1984Diane Brook Napier and Suzanne Majhanovich, ''Education, Dominance and Identity'', p. 32. bu ...

, based in

Mebane, North Carolina Mebane ( ) is a city located mostly in Alamance County, North Carolina, United States, and partly in Orange County, North Carolina, Orange County. The town was named for Alexander Mebane, an American Revolutionary War general and member of the U ...

, organized in 1984 as the

Eno-Occaneechi Indian Association The Occaneechi Band of the Saponi Nation is a state-recognized tribe in North Carolina. They first formed as the Eno Occaneechi Indian Association in 1984Diane Brook Napier and Suzanne Majhanovich, ''Education, Dominance and Identity'', p. 32. bu ...

, added Saponi to its name in 1995, state-recognized in 2002 #

Sappony The Sappony are a state-recognized tribe in North Carolina. They claim descent from the historic Saponi people, an Eastern Siouan language-speaking tribe who occupied the Piedmont of North Carolina and Virginia. They were previously called the ...

, based in

Roxboro, North Carolina Roxboro is a city in and the county seat of Person County, North Carolina, Person County in the U.S. state of North Carolina. The population was 8,134 at the United States Census, 2020, 2020 census. The city is north of Durham, North Carolina, D ...

, recognized by North Carolina in 1911 as the Indians of Person County. In 2003 they changed their name to

Unrecognized organizations

Numerous

unrecognized tribes These organizations, located within the United States, self-identify as Native American tribes, heritage groups, or descendant communities, but they are not federally recognized or state-recognized as Native American tribes. The U.S. Governmental ...

and other organizations claim Saponi ancestry. These include the Mahenips Band of the Saponi Nation of Missouri in the

Ozark The Ozarks, also known as the Ozark Mountains, Ozark Highlands or Ozark Plateau, is a physiographic region in the U.S. states of Missouri, Arkansas, and Oklahoma, as well as a small area in the southeastern corner of Kansas. The Ozarks cov ...

Hills, with headquarters in

West Plains, Missouri West Plains is a List of cities in Missouri, city in and the County seat#United States, county seat of Howell County, Missouri, Howell County, Missouri, United States. The population was 12,184 at the 2020 census. History The history of West Pl ...

. In 2000, the Saponi Nation of Missouri submitted a letter of intent to Petition for Federal Acknowledgement of Existence as an Indian Tribe; however, they did not follow through with submitting a petition.

Ohio Ohio ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Midwestern United States, Midwestern region of the United States. It borders Lake Erie to the north, Pennsylvania to the east, West Virginia to the southeast, Kentucky to the southwest, Indiana to the ...

is home to the second-largest population of people who claim Saponi ancestry. Ohio has no federally recognized or state-recognized tribes. Director of the Haliwa-Saponi Historic Legacy Project, Dr. Marty Richardson wrote, "A large group of Meadows Indians migrated to Ohio after 1835 and took advantage of fewer race-based restrictions." However, 1818 to 1842 marked Indian removals in Ohio. In 1998, a group called Saponi Nation of Ohio submitted a letter of intent to petition for recognition; however, they never submitted a completed petition.

Notes

References

* Demallie, Raymond J., "Tutelo and Neighboring Groups," in ''

Handbook of North American Indians The ''Handbook of North American Indians'' is a series of edited scholarly and reference volumes in Native American studies, published by the Smithsonian Institution beginning in 1978. Planning for the handbook series began in the late 1960s and ...

, Volume 14: Southeast'', ed.

Raymond D. Fogelson Raymond David Fogelson (August 23, 1933 - January 20, 2020) was an American anthropologist known for his research on American Indians of the southeastern United States, especially the Cherokee. He is considered a founder of the subdiscipline of et ...

(Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, 2004), 286–300. * *