Sanskrit Sanskrit (; stem form ; nominal singular , ,) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in northwest South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cultural ...

inherits from its parent, the

Proto-Indo-European Proto-Indo-European (PIE) is the reconstructed common ancestor of the Indo-European language family. No direct record of Proto-Indo-European exists; its proposed features have been derived by linguistic reconstruction from documented Indo-Euro ...

language, the capability of forming compound nouns, also widely seen in kindred languages, especially German, Greek, and English. However, Sanskrit, especially in the later stages of the language, significantly expands on this both in terms of the number of elements making up a single compound and the volume of compound usage in the literature, a development which is unique within Indo-European to Sanskrit and closely related languages. Further, this development in the later language is an entirely artificial, literary construct and does not reflect the spoken language.Burrow, p. 209.

Background

In Sanskrit, as in Proto-Indo-European, a compound is formed by taking the stem-form of the first element (i.e. removing its inflexion) and combining the two elements with a single accented syllable. In the later language, this process can be repeated recursively—in theory, ad infinitum, with the freshly made compound becoming the first element of a new one. The process of 'resolving' the compound, i.e., expounding the meaning using the component words declined as in sentence form is termed ''vigraha·vākya''. Broadly, compounds can be divided into two classes: ''endocentric'' and ''exocentric''.Adams, p. 35.

Endocentric compounds

An endocentric compound, usually called ''determinative'', is where the compound is essentially the sum of its parts, the meaning being an extension of one of the parts: * ''blackbird'' → a type of black bird * ''White House'' → the official residence of the US president * ''siṃha·purás'' → lion-city (Singapore)

Exocentric compounds

An exocentric compound refers to something outside the components: * ''redhead'' → someone with red hair * ''pickpocket'' → someone who picks someone else's pockets * 'bahu·vrīhi' → lit. 'much-rice', i.e., possessing much rice: an indication of wealth Indeed, this term 'bahuvrihi' is used both in Sanskrit and standard Indo-European linguistics to denote this type of compound. Sanskrit expands on these to provide several further distinctions as below:

Classification

In traditional Sanskrit grammar, compounds are divided into the following main classes:Kale, §201. * ''Tatpuruṣa'' ** ''Tatpuruṣa'' proper ** ''Karmadhāraya'' *** ''Dvigu'' ** ''Nañ-tatpuruṣa'' ** ''Prādi'' and ''gati'' ** ''Upapada'' * ''Bahuvrīhi'' ** ''Dvigu'' * ''Dvandva'' * ''Avyayībhāva'' The first two of these, ''tatpuruṣa'' and ''bahuvrīhi'', are Indo-European inheritances, the latter two are Indic innovations. Alongside the term ''bahuvrīhi'', ''tatpuruṣa'' has also been adopted in mainstream Indo-European linguistics as the technical term denoting this type of compounding. The following sections give an outline of the main types of compounds with examples. The examples demonstrate the composition of the compound's elements, and the meanings in English generally correspond to them, in most cases being a similar compound as well. Where this is not the case or the meaning is not clear, a further resolution is provided.

''Tatpuruṣa'' (determinative)

A ''tatpuruṣa'' is an endocentric compound composed of two elements, wherein the first one, named the attributive, determines the second one.Coulson, pp. 87. Based on the grammatical nature of the attributive member, six varieties of ''tatpuruṣa'' compounds are identified as seen in the classification above. A further distinction is also made based on whether the attributive is in the nominative or an oblique case.

''Tatpuruṣa proper''

The first member here is an attributive in an oblique relationship with the second, and are therefore termed ''dependent determinatives''.

''Karmadhāraya-tatpuruṣa'' (descriptive)

In a ''karmadhāraya-tatpuruṣa'' compound, the first element qualifies the second one adjectively when the latter is a noun. When the second member is an adjective, the qualification is adverbial. Other parts of speech besides adjectives and adverbs may be used to obtain the adjective or adverbial qualification.

= ''Dvigu-tatpuruṣa'' (numerative)

= In essence ''dvigu'' can refer to several compound types where the first element is a numeral. Dvigu-tatpuruṣa compounds are a special subcategory of ''karmadhārayas''. ''dvigu'' compounds of ''bahuvrīhi'' type are noted below.

''Nañ-tatpuruṣa'' (negative)

In a ''nañ-tatpuruṣa'' compound, the first element is a

privative A privative, named from Latin language, Latin , is a particle (grammar), particle that negates or inverts the semantics, value of the root word, stem of the word. In Indo-European languages, many privatives are prefix (linguistics), prefixes, bu ...

, a negator: ''a-'', ''an-'' or ''na-'', just like the English ''un-'', Latin-derived ''in-, non-'' or Greek-derived ''a-, an-''.

''Upapada-tatpuruṣa''

These are composed of a second member that occurs only in a compound and cannot stand on its own. These are either roots or verbal derivatives from them.

''Aluk-tatpuruṣa''

In an ''aluk-tatpuruṣa'' compound, in contrast to the standard pattern of being in stem form, the first element takes a case form as if in a sentence:

''Dvandva'' (co-ordinative)

These consist of two or more

noun In grammar, a noun is a word that represents a concrete or abstract thing, like living creatures, places, actions, qualities, states of existence, and ideas. A noun may serve as an Object (grammar), object or Subject (grammar), subject within a p ...

stems connected with "and" (copulative or co-ordinative). There are mainly three kinds of ''dvandva'' pair constructions in Sanskrit:

''Itaretara-dvandva''

The result of ''itaretara-dvandva'' is an enumerative word, the meaning of which refers to all its constituent members. The resultant compound word is in the dual or plural number and takes the gender of the final member in the compound construction. Examples:

''Samāhāra-dvandva''

Words may be organised in a compound to form a

metonym Metonymy () is a figure of speech in which a concept is referred to by the name of something associated with that thing or concept. For example, the word "wikt:suit, suit" may refer to a person from groups commonly wearing business attire, such ...

, and sometimes the words may comprise all the constituent parts of the whole. The resultant bears a collective sense and is always singular and neutral.

''Ekaśeṣa-dvandva''

Some Sanskrit grammarians identify a third kind of ''dvandva'' which they call ''ekaśeṣa-dvandva'', where only one stem remains in what is viewed as the compound of multiple words.

''Āmreḍita (iterative)''

While not strictly copulative, this is a compound consisting of the same word repeated with the first occurrence accented. ''Āmreḍita'' compounds are used to express repetitiveness; for example, from ''dív-'' (day) we obtain ''divé-dive'' ('day after day', daily) and from ''devá-'' (god) we obtain ''deváṃ-devam'' or ''devó-devas'' ('deity after deity').

''Bahuvrīhi'' (possessive)

''Bahuvrīhi'' is an exocentric compound consisting of a noun preceded by a

grammatical modifier In linguistics, a modifier is an optional element in phrase structure or clause structure which ''modifies'' the meaning of another element in the structure. For instance, the adjective "red" acts as a modifier in the noun phrase "red ball", provi ...

which, taken together, functions as a single nominalised adjective. A ''bahuvrīhi'' compound can often be translated by "possessing..." or "-ed"; for example, "possessing much rice" or "much-riced". In English, examples of ''bahuvrīhi'' would be "lowlife" and "blockhead" (they respectively denote 'one whose life is low' and 'one whose head resembles a block'), or the English surname Longbottom ('one who lives in a long "botham"

alley An alley or alleyway is a narrow lane, footpath, path, or passageway, often reserved for pedestrians, which usually runs between, behind, or within buildings in towns and cities. It is also a rear access or service road (back lane), or a path, w ...

). The second element could essentially have been a noun, which within such a compound, can take on adjective declensions with the compound used adjectivally. Endocentric compounds can thus be transformed into possessives, normally accompanied, and explicitly recognized in the older language, by a change in accentuation: * ''indra·śatrú-'', 'Indra's killer' ⇒ ''índra·śatru-'', 'having Indra as killer' * ''bṛhad·ratha-'', 'a great chariot' ⇒ ''bṛhád·ratha-'', 'having great chariots' * ''sūrya·tejás-'', 'sun's brightness' ⇒ ''sū́rya·tejas-'', 'possessing the brightness of the sun' A few typical examples of such compounds:

''Dvigu-bahuvrīhi''

When the first element of a ''bahuvrīhi'' is a numeral, the compound is called ''dvigu''. An English example would be a ''halfwit'' ('one who has half of their mind'). A few typical examples of such compounds:

''Avyayībhāva'' (adverbial)

''Avyayībhāvas'' ('indeclinable') are adverbial compounds composed of an indeclinable element (an adverb, etc.) and a noun, together expressing an adverb or another indeclinable () element.

Notes

References

Bibliography

* * * * * * * * * * * * * {{cite book , last1=Deshpande , first1=Madhav M , title=Sanskrit and Prakrit , year=1993 , publisher=Motilal Banarsidass , isbn=81-208-1136-4 , edition=1993 compound Vyakarana Linguistic morphology