Sanation (, ) was a Polish
political movement
A political movement is a collective attempt by a group of people to change government policy or social values. Political movements are usually in opposition to an element of the status quo, and are often associated with a certain ideology. Some t ...
that emerged in the
interwar period
In the history of the 20th century, the interwar period, also known as the interbellum (), lasted from 11 November 1918 to 1 September 1939 (20 years, 9 months, 21 days) – from the end of World War I (WWI) to the beginning of World War II ( ...
, prior to
Józef Piłsudski
Józef Klemens Piłsudski (; 5 December 1867 – 12 May 1935) was a Polish statesman who served as the Chief of State (Poland), Chief of State (1918–1922) and first Marshal of Poland (from 1920). In the aftermath of World War I, he beca ...
's
May 1926 ''Coup d'État'', and gained influence following the coup. In 1928, its political activists went on to form the
Nonpartisan Bloc for Cooperation with the Government
The Nonpartisan Bloc for Cooperation with the Government (, ; abbreviated ''BBWR'') was a "non-political" organization in the interwar Second Polish Republic, in 1928–35. It was closely affiliated with Józef Piłsudski and his Sanation moveme ...
(''BBWR'').
The Sanation movement took its name from Piłsudski's goal of a moral "
sanation
Sanation (, ) was a Polish political movement that emerged in the interwar period, prior to Józef Piłsudski's May 1926 ''Coup d'État'', and gained influence following the coup. In 1928, its political activists went on to form the Nonpartisa ...
" (healing) of the Polish
body politic
The body politic is a polity—such as a city, realm, or state—considered metaphorically as a physical body. Historically, the sovereign is typically portrayed as the body's head, and the analogy may also be extended to other anatomical part ...
. The movement functioned cohesively until Piłsudski's death in 1935. Following his death, Sanation fragmented into several factions, including "the Castle" (President
Ignacy Mościcki
Ignacy Mościcki (; 1 December 1867 – 2 October 1946) was a Polish chemist and politician who was the country's president from 1926 to 1939. He was the longest serving president in Polish history. Mościcki was the President of Poland when Ge ...
and his supporters).
["''Sanacja''," '']Encyklopedia Polski
This is a list of encyclopedias by language.
Albanian
Encyclopedias written in Albanian.
* '' Albanian Encyclopedic Dictionary'' (): published by Academy of Sciences of Albania;
** First Edition (1985; ''FESH'')
** New Edition (2008/09; ''Botim ...
'', p. 601.
Sanation, which supported
authoritarian rule, was led by a circle of Piłsudski's close associates, including
Walery Sławek
Walery Jan Sławek (; 2 November 1879 – 3 April 1939) was a Polish politician, freemason, military officer and activist, who in the early 1930s served three times as Prime Minister of Poland. He was one of the closest aides of Polish lead ...
,
Aleksander Prystor
Aleksander Błażej Prystor (; 2 January 1874 – 1941) was a Polish politician, activist, soldier and freemason, who served as 23rd Prime Minister of Poland from 1931 to 1933. He was a member of the Combat Organization of the Polish Socialist ...
,
Kazimierz Świtalski
Kazimierz Stanisław Świtalski (; 4 March 1886 – 28 December 1962) was a Polish politician, diplomat, soldier, military officer in the Polish Legions and Prime Minister of Poland between April and December 1929.
Early life and studies
Kazim ...
,
Janusz Jędrzejewicz
Janusz Jędrzejewicz (; 21 June 1885 – 16 March 1951) was a Polish politician and educator, a leader of the Sanacja political group, and 24th Prime Minister of Poland from 1933 to 1934.
Life
He joined Józef Piłsudski's Polish Socialist ...
,
Adam Koc
Adam Ignacy Koc (31 August 1891 – 3 February 1969) was a Polish politician, Member of parliament, MP, soldier, journalist and Freemasonry, Freemason. Koc, who had several ''noms de guerre'' (Witold, Szlachetny, Adam Krajewski, Adam Warmiń ...
,
Józef Beck
Józef Beck (; 4 October 1894 – 5 June 1944) was a Polish statesman who served the Second Republic of Poland as a diplomat and military officer. A close associate of Józef Piłsudski, Beck is most famous for being Polish foreign minister in ...
,
Tadeusz Hołówko
Tadeusz Ludwik Hołówko (September 17, 1889 – August 29, 1931), codename ''Kirgiz'', was an interwar Polish politician, diplomat and author of many articles and books.
He was most notable for his moderate stance on the "Ukrainian problem" fac ...
,
Bogusław Miedziński Bogusław may refer to:
*Bogusław (given name)
* Bogusław, West Pomeranian Voivodeship
* Bogusław, Lublin Voivodeship
See also
*Bogusławski (disambiguation)
* Bohuslav
Bohuslav (, ; ) is a List of cities in Ukraine, city on the Ros (river) ...
, and
Edward Śmigły-Rydz
Edward is an English male name. It is derived from the Anglo-Saxon name ''Ēadweard'', composed of the elements '' ēad'' "wealth, fortunate; prosperous" and '' weard'' "guardian, protector”.
History
The name Edward was very popular in Anglo-S ...
.
It emphasized the primacy of the
national interest
The national interest is a sovereign state's goals and ambitions – be they economic, military, cultural, or otherwise – taken to be the aim of its government.
Etymology
The Italian phrase ''ragione degli stati'' was first used by Giovanni de ...
in governance, and opposed the system of
parliamentary democracy
A parliamentary system, or parliamentary democracy, is a form of government where the head of government (chief executive) derives their democratic legitimacy from their ability to command the support ("confidence") of a majority of the legisl ...
.
Background
Named after the
Latin
Latin ( or ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken by the Latins (Italic tribe), Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio), the lower Tiber area aroun ...
word for "healing" ("''
sanatio''"), the Sanation movement mainly consisted of former military officers who were dissatisfied with the
perceived corruption in Polish politics. Sanation was a coalition of rightists, leftists, and centrists, primarily focused on addressing corruption and reducing inflation. The movement emerged prior to the
May 1926 ''Coup d'État'' and persisted until the onset of
World War II
World War II or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War II, Allies and the Axis powers. World War II by country, Nearly all of the wo ...
, but was never formalized. While Piłsudski had previously led the
Polish Socialist Party
The Polish Socialist Party (, PPS) is a democratic socialist political party in Poland.
It was one of the most significant parties in Poland from its founding in 1892 until its forced merger with the communist Polish Workers' Party to form ...
, he grew disillusioned with
political parties
A political party is an organization that coordinates candidates to compete in a particular area's elections. It is common for the members of a party to hold similar ideas about politics, and parties may promote specific ideological or p ...
, which he viewed as promoting their own interests rather than those of the state and the people. As a result, the Sanation movement did not evolve into a political party. Instead, in 1928, Sanation members formed the ''Bezpartyjny Blok Współpracy z Rządem'' (''BBWR'', "
Nonpartisan Bloc for Cooperation with the Government
The Nonpartisan Bloc for Cooperation with the Government (, ; abbreviated ''BBWR'') was a "non-political" organization in the interwar Second Polish Republic, in 1928–35. It was closely affiliated with Józef Piłsudski and his Sanation moveme ...
"), a pro-government group that did not consider itself a political party.
History
Although Piłsudski never sought personal power, he exercised considerable influence over Polish politics after Sanation came to power in 1926. For the next decade, he played a central role in Polish affairs as the de facto leader of a generally popular centrist regime.
Kazimierz Bartel
Kazimierz Władysław Bartel (; ; 3 March 1882 – 26 July 1941) was a Polish people, Polish mathematician, freemason, scholar, diplomat and politician who served as 15th, 17th and 19th List of prime ministers of Poland, Prime Minister of P ...
's government and all subsequent governments were informally approved by Piłsudski before being confirmed by the President. In his pursuit of ''sanation,'' Piłsudski combined democratic and authoritarian elements. Poland's internal stability improved, and economic stagnation was addressed through
Eugeniusz Kwiatkowski
Eugeniusz Kwiatkowski (30 December 1888, Kraków – 22 August 1974, Kraków) was a Polish politician and economist, Deputy Prime Minister of Poland, government minister and manager of the Second Polish Republic.
Biography
He studied at the pr ...
's economic reforms. At the same time, the Sanation regime took action against communist parties (citing formal grounds that they had failed to legally ''register'' as political parties) and worked to limit the influence of opposition parties by fragmenting their support.
A notable feature of the regime was that, unlike in many non-democratic European countries, it did not evolve into a full dictatorship. Freedom of the press, speech, and political parties was never legally abolished, and opposition figures were often dealt with through means other than formal court sentences, such as actions by "unidentified perpetrators."
Sanation allowed the
1928 election to be relatively free, but faced a setback when its ''BBWR'' supporters fell short of securing a majority. Prior to the
1930 election, some opposition parties united in a ''
Centrolew
The (, 'Center-Left') was a coalition of several Polish political parties ( Polish People's Party "Wyzwolenie", German Socialist Labour Party of Poland, Polish People's Party "Piast", National Workers' Party, Polish Socialist Party and Christ ...
'' (Center-Left) coalition, calling for the government's overthrow; in response, Sanation arrested more than 20 prominent opposition leaders from the ''Centrolew'' movement. In the subsequent election, ''BBWR'' won over 46 percent of the vote and secured a large majority in both houses of parliament. The personality cult surrounding Józef Piłsudski was largely a result of his general popularity with the public, rather than through top-down propaganda, which is notable given Piłsudski's skepticism of democracy. Sanation's ideology focused primarily on populist calls for political and economic reform, but did not delve into societal issues in the manner of contemporary fascist regimes. From 1929, the semi-official newspaper of Sanation, and thus of the Polish government, was ''
Gazeta Polska
''Gazeta Polska'' (Literal translation, lit.: ''Polish Newspaper'') is a Polish language pro-United Right (Poland), United Right right-wing populist to far-right weekly magazine published in Poland.
Profile and history
''Gazeta Polsk''a was f ...
'' (the ''Polish Gazette'').
Legislative agenda
The Sanation government invalidated the results of the May 1930 election by disbanding the parliament in August.
Spring Will Be Ours: Poland and the Poles from Occupation to Freedom
' By Andrzej Paczkowski, page 28. New elections were scheduled for November 1930. In response to anti-government
demonstrations
Demonstration may refer to:
* Demonstration (acting), part of the Brechtian approach to acting
* Demonstration (military), an attack or show of force on a front where a decision is not sought
* Protest, a public act of objection, disapproval or d ...
, 20 opposition-party members,
including most of the leaders of the ''
Centrolew
The (, 'Center-Left') was a coalition of several Polish political parties ( Polish People's Party "Wyzwolenie", German Socialist Labour Party of Poland, Polish People's Party "Piast", National Workers' Party, Polish Socialist Party and Christ ...
'' alliance (Socialist,
Polish People's Party "Piast", and
Polish People's Party "Wyzwolenie"
Polish Peasant Party "Wyzwolenie" or Polish People's Party "Wyzwolenie" (Polish: ''Polskie Stronnictwo Ludowe "Wyzwolenie"'', abbreviated as PSL Wyzwolenie) — ''Wyzwolenie'' is Polish for ''Liberation'', and many sources translate the pa ...
leaders) were arrested
Atlas of Eastern Europe in the Twentieth Century
' By Richard & Benjamin Crampton, pp. 102–103. in September 1930 without
warrants
Warrant may refer to:
* Warrant (law), a form of specific authorization
** Arrest warrant, authorizing the arrest and detention of an individual
** Search warrant, a court order issued that authorizes law enforcement to conduct a search for eviden ...
, on the orders of Piłsudski and the Minister of Internal Security,
Felicjan Sławoj Składkowski
Felicjan Sławoj Składkowski (; 9 June 1885, Gąbin – 31 August 1962 London) was a Polish physician, general, and politician who served as Ministry of Interior and Administration (Poland), Minister of Internal Affairs and as the 28th Prime Mi ...
, and accused of plotting an anti-government
coup.
The opposition leaders (including former prime minister
Wincenty Witos
Wincenty Witos (; 21 or 22 January 1874 – 31 October 1945) was a Polish statesman, prominent member and leader of the Polish People's Party (PSL), who served three times as the Prime Minister of Poland in the 1920s.
He was a member of the Pol ...
and
Wojciech Korfanty
Wojciech Korfanty (; born Adalbert Korfanty; 20 April 1873 – 17 August 1939) was a Polish activist, journalist and politician, who served as a member of the German parliaments, the Reichstag and the Prussian Landtag, and later, in the Poli ...
) were imprisoned and
tried
In law, a trial is a coming together of parties to a dispute, to present information (in the form of evidence) in a tribunal, a formal setting with the authority to adjudicate claims or disputes. One form of tribunal is a court. The tribunal, wh ...
at the
Brest Fortress
Brest Fortress (; ; ; ), formerly known as Brest-Litovsk Fortress, is a 19th-century fortress in Brest, Belarus. In 1965, the title Hero Fortress was given to the fortress to commemorate the defence of the frontier stronghold during the fi ...
(which led to the popular name for the November 1930 election: "the Brest election"). A number of lesser-known political activists across the country were also arrested;
they were released after the election. The Brest trial concluded in January 1932, with ten of the accused sentenced to up to three years' imprisonment; appeals in 1933 upheld the sentences. The government offered those sentenced the option of emigrating abroad; five chose this option, while the other five decided to serve their prison terms.
Splintering and power-sharing
A key turning point for the
Piłsudskiite
A Piłsudskiite () was a political supporter of Marshal Józef Piłsudski, the founder of the First World War Polish Legions and the first Chief of State of the Second Republic of Poland. The Piłsudskiites had a major influence on the politics ...
s occurred in 1935 with Piłsudski's death. The
April 1935 Constitution, adopted a few weeks earlier, had been designed with Marshal Piłsudski in mind. In the absence of a successor with similar authority, a reinterpretation of the new Constitution became necessary. As
Ignacy Matuszewski
Ignacy Hugo Stanisław Matuszewski ( – 3 August 1946) was a Polish politician, publicist, diplomat, Minister of Finance of the Second Polish Republic, colonel, infantry officer and intelligence agent of the Polish Army, member of the Intern ...
stated, "We must replace the Great Man with an organization."
Piłsudski's death led to the fragmentation of Sanation, driven by two main factors: competition for power and influence among Piłsudski's followers (the struggles among the ''
diadochi
The Diadochi were the rival generals, families, and friends of Alexander the Great who fought for control over his empire after his death in 323 BC. The Wars of the Diadochi mark the beginning of the Hellenistic period from the Mediterran ...
'' – "the heirs" – as
Adam Pragier
Adam Szymon Pragier (12 December 1886 – 24 July 1976) was a Polish economist, Doctor of Jurisprudence professor at the Free Polish University, socialist activist, politician, member of the Polish Legions in World War I, Polish Legions and wr ...
referred to them); and a search for a more suitable ideology that Piłsudski's supporters might accept. The combination of personal competition and differing ideological views resulted in division and a lack of unity.
Eventually, Sanation divided into three major factions:
* "
the Colonels" (''Pułkownicy'', gathered around
Walery Sławek
Walery Jan Sławek (; 2 November 1879 – 3 April 1939) was a Polish politician, freemason, military officer and activist, who in the early 1930s served three times as Prime Minister of Poland. He was one of the closest aides of Polish lead ...
), which sought to continue the Piłsudskiite ideology in alignment with the principles of the April Constitution;
* "the Castle" (''Zamek'', formed around President
Ignacy Mościcki
Ignacy Mościcki (; 1 December 1867 – 2 October 1946) was a Polish chemist and politician who was the country's president from 1926 to 1939. He was the longest serving president in Polish history. Mościcki was the President of Poland when Ge ...
, who resided in the
Warsaw Castle, which gave the faction its name); and
* ''GISZ'' (''Generalny Inspektor Sił Zbrojnych''), formed around
General Inspector of the Armed Forces
General Inspector of the Armed Forces () was an office created in the Second Polish Republic in 1926, after the May Coup.
The General Inspector reported directly to the President, and was not responsible to the ''Sejm'' (parliament) or the gov ...
Marshal
Edward Śmigły-Rydz
Edward is an English male name. It is derived from the Anglo-Saxon name ''Ēadweard'', composed of the elements '' ēad'' "wealth, fortunate; prosperous" and '' weard'' "guardian, protector”.
History
The name Edward was very popular in Anglo-S ...
as a representative of the late Marshal Piłsudski.
The document deviated from the state order established by the
April Constitution
The April Constitution of Poland ( or ''Konstytucja kwietniowa'') was the general law passed by the act of the Polish Sejm on 23 April 1935. It established a presidential system in the Second Polish Republic with strong executive powers. The ...
.
Another outcome of the Mościcki-Śmigły agreement was the promotion of the general to Marshal of Poland. On November 10, 1936, President Mościcki appointed him
General of the branch
A general of the branch, general of the branch of service or general of the ... (where instead of the ellipsis an appropriate name of the military branch is being put) is a three-star rank, three or four-star rank, four-star general officer rank i ...
and, at the same time,
Marshal of Poland
Marshal of Poland () is the highest rank in the Polish Army. It has been granted to only six officers. At present, Marshal is equivalent to a field marshal or general of the army (OF-10) in other NATO armies.
History
Today there are no living ...
, and decorated him with the
Order of the White Eagle.
Additionally, the creation of the
Camp of National Unity (OZN) under Śmigły’s direction and within his framework expanded his influence. As a result, he became the central figure in determining the ideological direction of Sanation from 1937 to 1939.
Piłsudski's death led to a power struggle, as is often the case in such circumstances. At the same time, there were increasing differences in political thought among the
Piłsudskiites. The
Colonels' group and
Sławek lost influence, and with them, the concepts of a
socialized state and the Constitution as the sole regulator of state life. A new authority emerged in the figure of
Śmigły-Rydz, largely supported by some former Colonels. This new group, centered around the
General Inspector, took a
nationalistic
Nationalism is an idea or movement that holds that the nation should be congruent with the state. As a movement, it presupposes the existence and tends to promote the interests of a particular nation, Smith, Anthony. ''Nationalism: Theory, Id ...
direction, and at times exhibited
pro-totalitarian tendencies. The Castle Group and the “''Naprawa''” group, based around the president, sought to moderate these tendencies. The Sanation left, weak among the Piłsudskiites, effectively distanced itself from the camp.
[Janusz Faryś, Polska bez Piłsudskiego : z dziejów myśli piłsudczykowskiej (1935-1939), Mazowieckie Studia Humanistyczne, 2002, 8, 2, p. 289]
World War II
During the 1939
invasion of Poland
The invasion of Poland, also known as the September Campaign, Polish Campaign, and Polish Defensive War of 1939 (1 September – 6 October 1939), was a joint attack on the Second Polish Republic, Republic of Poland by Nazi Germany, the Slovak R ...
, many Sanationists evacuated to
Romania
Romania is a country located at the crossroads of Central Europe, Central, Eastern Europe, Eastern and Southeast Europe. It borders Ukraine to the north and east, Hungary to the west, Serbia to the southwest, Bulgaria to the south, Moldova to ...
or
Hungary
Hungary is a landlocked country in Central Europe. Spanning much of the Pannonian Basin, Carpathian Basin, it is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine to the northeast, Romania to the east and southeast, Serbia to the south, Croatia and ...
, from where they were able to travel to
France
France, officially the French Republic, is a country located primarily in Western Europe. Overseas France, Its overseas regions and territories include French Guiana in South America, Saint Pierre and Miquelon in the Atlantic Ocean#North Atlan ...
or French-mandated
Syria
Syria, officially the Syrian Arab Republic, is a country in West Asia located in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Levant. It borders the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Turkey to Syria–Turkey border, the north, Iraq to Iraq–Syria border, t ...
and, after the fall of France, to
Britain
Britain most often refers to:
* Great Britain, a large island comprising the countries of England, Scotland and Wales
* The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, a sovereign state in Europe comprising Great Britain and the north-eas ...
. Although France sought to exclude Sanationists from the
Polish Government in Exile
The Polish government-in-exile, officially known as the Government of the Republic of Poland in exile (), was the government in exile
A government-in-exile (GiE) is a political group that claims to be the legitimate government of a sovere ...
, many continued to maintain influence. During the war, Sanationists established several resistance organizations, including in 1942 the
Polish Fighting Movement (''Obóz Polski Walczącej''), which in 1943 became subordinate to the
Home Army
The Home Army (, ; abbreviated AK) was the dominant resistance movement in German-occupied Poland during World War II. The Home Army was formed in February 1942 from the earlier Związek Walki Zbrojnej (Armed Resistance) established in the ...
and in 1944 merged with the Council of Independence Organizations (''Konwent Organizacji Niepodległościowych'') to form the Union of Independence Organizations (''Zjednoczenie Organizacji Niepodległościowych''). After
World War II
World War II or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War II, Allies and the Axis powers. World War II by country, Nearly all of the wo ...
, Poland's Soviet-installed
communist government
A communist state, also known as a Marxist–Leninist state, is a one-party state in which the totality of the power belongs to a party adhering to some form of Marxism–Leninism, a branch of the communist ideology. Marxism–Leninism was ...
labeled Sanationists as
enemies of the state, leading to executions or forced exile for many.
Political parties
The following is a list of Sanation's political parties and their successors:
* 1928–1935:
Nonpartisan Bloc for Cooperation with the Government
The Nonpartisan Bloc for Cooperation with the Government (, ; abbreviated ''BBWR'') was a "non-political" organization in the interwar Second Polish Republic, in 1928–35. It was closely affiliated with Józef Piłsudski and his Sanation moveme ...
(''BBWR'')
* 1937–1939:
Camp of National Unity
''Obóz Zjednoczenia Narodowego'' (, OZN; ), often called ''Ozon'' (Polish for "ozone"), was a Polish political party founded in 1937 by sections of the leadership in the Sanation movement.
A year after the 1935 death of Poland's Chief of Stat ...
(OZN)
* 1979–2003
Confederation of Independent Poland
Confederation of Independent Poland (KPN, ) was a Polish nationalist political party founded on 1 September 1979 by Leszek Moczulski and others declaring support for the pre-war traditions of Sanacja and Józef Piłsudski.
It was the first ind ...
(KPN)
* 1985–1992
Polish Independence Party
Polish may refer to:
* Anything from or related to Poland, a country in Europe
* Polish language
* Polish people, people from Poland or of Polish descent
* Polish chicken
* Polish brothers (Mark Polish and Michael Polish, born 1970), American twin ...
(PPN)
* 1992–1998
Movement for the Republic – Patriotic Camp
The Movement for the Republic – Patriotic Camp (, RdR–OP) was a political party in Poland. It was a party that split from the Movement for the Republic (RdR), with the split being caused by differences of opinion in regards to the party's pos ...
(RdR)
* 1993-1997
Nonpartisan Bloc for Support of Reforms
The Nonpartisan Bloc for Support of Reforms (, BBWR) was an officially nonpartisan organization (but, in fact, a political party) affiliated with Lech Wałęsa. The party was established in 1993, and became part of Solidarity Electoral Action in ...
(''BBWR'')
Notable members
*
Józef Beck
Józef Beck (; 4 October 1894 – 5 June 1944) was a Polish statesman who served the Second Republic of Poland as a diplomat and military officer. A close associate of Józef Piłsudski, Beck is most famous for being Polish foreign minister in ...
*
Tadeusz Hołówko
Tadeusz Ludwik Hołówko (September 17, 1889 – August 29, 1931), codename ''Kirgiz'', was an interwar Polish politician, diplomat and author of many articles and books.
He was most notable for his moderate stance on the "Ukrainian problem" fac ...
*
Janusz Jędrzejewicz
Janusz Jędrzejewicz (; 21 June 1885 – 16 March 1951) was a Polish politician and educator, a leader of the Sanacja political group, and 24th Prime Minister of Poland from 1933 to 1934.
Life
He joined Józef Piłsudski's Polish Socialist ...
*
Wacław Jędrzejewicz
General Wacław Jędrzejewicz (; 29 January 1893 – 30 November 1993) was a Polish Army officer, diplomacy, diplomat, politician and historian, and subsequently an American college professor.
He was co-founder, president, and long-time execu ...
*
Adam Koc
Adam Ignacy Koc (31 August 1891 – 3 February 1969) was a Polish politician, Member of parliament, MP, soldier, journalist and Freemasonry, Freemason. Koc, who had several ''noms de guerre'' (Witold, Szlachetny, Adam Krajewski, Adam Warmiń ...
*
Leon Kozłowski
Leon Tadeusz Kozłowski (; 6 June 1892 – 11 May 1944) was a Polish archaeologist, freemason, and politician who served as Prime Minister of Poland from 1934 to 1935.
Life
Leon Kozłowski was born in 1892 in the village of Rembieszyce near Ma ...
*
Ignacy Matuszewski
Ignacy Hugo Stanisław Matuszewski ( – 3 August 1946) was a Polish politician, publicist, diplomat, Minister of Finance of the Second Polish Republic, colonel, infantry officer and intelligence agent of the Polish Army, member of the Intern ...
*
Bogusław Miedziński Bogusław may refer to:
*Bogusław (given name)
* Bogusław, West Pomeranian Voivodeship
* Bogusław, Lublin Voivodeship
See also
*Bogusławski (disambiguation)
* Bohuslav
Bohuslav (, ; ) is a List of cities in Ukraine, city on the Ros (river) ...
*
Ignacy Mościcki
Ignacy Mościcki (; 1 December 1867 – 2 October 1946) was a Polish chemist and politician who was the country's president from 1926 to 1939. He was the longest serving president in Polish history. Mościcki was the President of Poland when Ge ...
*
Bronisław Pieracki
Bronisław Wilhelm Pieracki (28 May 1895 – 15 June 1934) was a Polish military officer and politician.
Life
As a member of the Polish Legions in World War I, Pieracki took part in the Polish-Ukrainian War (1918–1919). He later supported J� ...
*
Józef Piłsudski
Józef Klemens Piłsudski (; 5 December 1867 – 12 May 1935) was a Polish statesman who served as the Chief of State (Poland), Chief of State (1918–1922) and first Marshal of Poland (from 1920). In the aftermath of World War I, he beca ...
*
Aleksander Prystor
Aleksander Błażej Prystor (; 2 January 1874 – 1941) was a Polish politician, activist, soldier and freemason, who served as 23rd Prime Minister of Poland from 1931 to 1933. He was a member of the Combat Organization of the Polish Socialist ...
*
Edward Śmigły-Rydz
Edward is an English male name. It is derived from the Anglo-Saxon name ''Ēadweard'', composed of the elements '' ēad'' "wealth, fortunate; prosperous" and '' weard'' "guardian, protector”.
History
The name Edward was very popular in Anglo-S ...
*
Adam Skwarczyński
Adam Franciszek Ksawery Skwarczynski (''Stary, Adam Sliwinski, Adam Plomienczyk'', 1886–1934) was a Polish independence activist and politician, one of main ideologists of the Sanacja movement. A supporter of Józef Piłsudski and his polic ...
*
Walery Sławek
Walery Jan Sławek (; 2 November 1879 – 3 April 1939) was a Polish politician, freemason, military officer and activist, who in the early 1930s served three times as Prime Minister of Poland. He was one of the closest aides of Polish lead ...
*
Kazimierz Świtalski
Kazimierz Stanisław Świtalski (; 4 March 1886 – 28 December 1962) was a Polish politician, diplomat, soldier, military officer in the Polish Legions and Prime Minister of Poland between April and December 1929.
Early life and studies
Kazim ...
See also
*
Intermarium
Intermarium (, ) was a post-World War I geopolitical plan conceived by Józef Piłsudski to unite former Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth lands within a single polity. The plan went through several iterations, some of which anticipated the inclusi ...
*
Prometheism
Prometheism or Prometheanism () was a political project initiated by Józef Piłsudski, a principal statesman of the Second Polish Republic from 1918 to 1935. Its aim was to weaken the Russian Empire and then the Soviet Union, by supporting natio ...
*
Józef Piłsudski
Józef Klemens Piłsudski (; 5 December 1867 – 12 May 1935) was a Polish statesman who served as the Chief of State (Poland), Chief of State (1918–1922) and first Marshal of Poland (from 1920). In the aftermath of World War I, he beca ...
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History of Kraków
Kraków is one of the largest and oldest cities in Poland, with the urban population of 804,237 (June, 2023). Situated on the Vistula river () in the Lesser Poland region, the city dates back to the 7th century. It was the capital of Poland from ...
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History of Warsaw
The history of Warsaw spans over 1400 years. In that time, the city evolved from a cluster of villages to the capital of a major European power, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth—and, under the patronage of its kings, a center of enlightenmen ...
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Piłsudski's colonels
Piłsudski's colonels, and in the Polish Army (particularly during the Polish–Soviet War of 1919–1920, prior to Piłsudski's 1923 resignation as Chief of the Polish General Staff). They had held key, if not necessarily the highest, military r ...
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1934 flood in Poland
Polish flood of 1934 () was the biggest flood in the Second Polish Republic. It began with heavy rains in the Dunajec river basin, which took place between 13 and 17 July 1934. In the following days, the flood spread to the basins of the Raba, W ...
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Bereza Kartuska prison
Bereza Kartuska Prison (, "Place of Isolation at Bereza Kartuska") was operated by Poland's Sanation government from 1934 to 1939 in Biaroza, Bereza Kartuska, Polesie Voivodeship (today, Biaroza, Belarus). Because the inmates were detained with ...
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Second Polish Republic
The Second Polish Republic, at the time officially known as the Republic of Poland, was a country in Central and Eastern Europe that existed between 7 October 1918 and 6 October 1939. The state was established in the final stage of World War I ...
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Polish Underground State
The Polish Underground State (, also known as the Polish Secret State) was a single political and military entity formed by the union of resistance organizations in occupied Poland that were loyal to the Government of the Republic of Poland ...
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Polish–Romanian alliance
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European interwar dictatorships
This is a list of dictatorial regimes operational in European states in the interwar period, the period between World War I and World War II.
Table summary
See also
* Interwar period
* Dictatorship
Footnotes
Further reading
* Gerhar ...
Notes
References
*
*
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Adam Zamoyski
Adam Zamoyski (born 11 January 1949) is a British historian and author descended from the historically important Polish nobility. Personal life
Born in New York City in 1949, as Adam Stefan Zamoyski, the youngest son of Count Stefan Zamoyski ( ...
, ''The Polish Way: A Thousand-Year History of the Poles and Their Culture'', New York, Hippocrene Books, 1994, .
* ''
Encyklopedia Polski
This is a list of encyclopedias by language.
Albanian
Encyclopedias written in Albanian.
* '' Albanian Encyclopedic Dictionary'' (): published by Academy of Sciences of Albania;
** First Edition (1985; ''FESH'')
** New Edition (2008/09; ''Botim ...
'' vi
Google Books, p. 601–.
{{Authority control
Guided democracy
Military dictatorships
Józef Piłsudski
Politics of the Second Polish Republic
Political history of Poland
May Coup (Poland)
Political movements in Poland
Democratic backsliding in Poland