Sampradaya Dance Creations

''Sampradaya'' (/ səmpɾəd̪ɑjə/,; ), in Indian-origin religions, namely Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism, can be translated as 'tradition', 'spiritual lineage', 'sect', or 'religious system'. To ensure continuity and transmission of dharma, various ''sampradayas'' have the Guru-shishya parampara in which a parampara or lineage of successive ''gurus'' (masters) and '' shishyas'' (disciples) serves as a spiritual channel and provides a reliable network of relationships that lends stability to a religious identity. Shramana is vedic term for seeker or shishya. Identification with and followership of ''sampradayas'' is not static, as ''sampradayas'' allows flexibility where one can leave one ''sampradaya'' and enter another or practice religious syncretism by simultaneously following more than one ''sampradaya''. '' Samparda'' is a Punjabi language term, used in Sikhism, for ''sampradayas''.

Guru-shishya parampara

Sampradayas are living traditions of both teaching and practice within a specific religious-spiritual tradition. They are generally composed of a monastic order within a specific guru lineage, with ideas developed and transmitted, redefined and reviewed by each successive generation of followers. A particular guru lineage is called '' parampara''. By receiving diksha (initiation) into the ''parampara'' of a living guru, one belongs to its proper ''sampradaya''.

To ensure continuity through dharma transmission, various sampradayas ensure continuity through Guru-shishya parampara where Guru teaches shishyas in gurukula, matha, akhara, and viharas. Buddhism also has lineage of gurus. Tibetan Buddhism has lineage of Lamas who teach in gompas and stupas.

Titles such as Guru, Acharya, or Mahacharya may be used to denote the level of authority within a lineage (sampradaya).

Continuity of sampradaya

''Sampradaya'' is a body of practice, views and attitudes, which are transmitted, redefined and reviewed by each successive generation of followers. Participation in ''sampradaya'' forces continuity with the past, or tradition, but at the same time provides a platform for change from within the community of practitioners of this particular traditional group.

Diksha: Initiation into sampradaya

A particular guru lineage in guru-shishya tradition is called '' parampara'', and may have its own akharas and gurukulas. By receiving diksha (initiation) into the ''parampara'' of a living guru, one belongs to its proper ''sampradaya''. One cannot become a member by birth, as is the case with ''gotra'', a seminal, or hereditary, dynasty.

Authority on knowledge of truth

Membership in a ''sampradaya'' not only lends a level of authority to one's claims on truth in Hindu traditional context, but also allows one to make those claims in the first place. An often quoted verse from the Padma Purana states:

And another verse states:

As Wright and Wright put it,

Nevertheless, there are also examples of teachers who were not initiated into a sampradaya, Ramana Maharshi being a well-known example.Sri Ramanasramam, "A lineage of Bhagavan Sri Ramana Maharshi?"
A sannyasin belonging to the Sringeri Sharada Peetham once tried to persuade Ramana to be initiated into sannyasa, but Ramana refused.

Types of sampradayas

Āstika and nāstika sampradayas

Since ancient times, Indian philosophy has been categorized into ''āstika'' and ''nāstika'' schools of thought.

Āstika and nāstika concept in Hindu, Buddhist and Jain scriptures define ''Astika'' as those sampradayas which believe in the existence of Atman (Self) and those who accept supremacy of vedas, ''Nastika'' being those who deny there is any "Self" in human beings or do not hold vedas as supreme. In modern context, ''Astika'' are also defined as ''theists'' and ''Nastika'' as ''atheist''. In Indian origin religions, even atheism is considered acceptable, especially under the concept of Sarva Dharma Sama Bhava. The concept of acceptable or valid Dharma excludes the Mleccha (impure) who are considered without the purity of ethics and code of conduct called yamas and niyama.

Sampradayas of Indian-origin religions have their own ''Darshana'' or philosophy, encompassing world views and teachings. Six Astika or orthodox sampradayas which believe in supremacy of veda are called '' shad-darśana'' (lit. six system), namely Sankhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa and Vedanta.Andrew Nicholson (2013), Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History, Columbia University Press, , pages 2–5

Āstika or orthodox sampradayas

Astika or orthodox sampradayas or schools of Indian philosophy have been called ṣaḍdarśana ("six systems"). This scheme was created between the 12th and 16th centuries by Vedantins. It was then adopted by the early Western Indologists, and pervades modern understandings of Indian philosophy. Each of six āstika (orthodox) schools of thought is called a darśana, and each darśana accepts the Vedas as authority. Each astika darsana also accepts the premise that ''Atman'' (soul, eternal self) exists.Klaus Klostermaier (2007), Hinduism: A Beginner's Guide, , Chapter 2, page 26 The schools of philosophy are:
# Samkhya – An strongly dualist theoretical exposition of consciousness and matter. Agnostic with respect to God or the gods.
# Yoga – A monotheistic school which emerged from Sankhya and emphasizes practical use of Sankhya theory: meditation, contemplation and liberation.
# Nyāya or logic – The school of epistemology which explores sources of knowledge.
# Vaiśeṣika – An empiricist school of atomism.
# Mīmāṃsā – An anti-ascetic and anti-mysticist school of orthopraxy. This school deals with the correct interpretation of the verses in Vedas.
# Vedānta – The last segment of knowledge in the Vedas, or ''jñānakāṇḍa'' (section of knowledge). Vedanta is also referred as Uttara-Mimamsa. Vedānta came to be the dominant current of Hinduism in the post-medieval period.

Nastika sampradayas

Nastika or hetrodox sampradayas do not accept the authority of the Vedas are nāstika philosophies, of which four (heterodox) schools are prominent:P Bilimoria (2000), Indian Philosophy (Editor: Roy Perrett), Routledge, , page 88
# Ājīvika, a materialism school that denied the existence of free will.
# Cārvāka, a materialism school that accepted the existence of free will.R Bhattacharya (2011), Studies on the Carvaka/Lokayata, Anthem, , pages 53, 94, 141–142Johannes Bronkhorst (2012), Free will and Indian philosophy, Antiqvorvm Philosophia: An International Journal, Roma Italy, Volume 6, pages 19–30
# Buddhism, a philosophy that denies existence of ātman (soul, self) and is based on the teachings and enlightenment of Gautama Buddha.
# Jainism, a philosophy that accepts the existence of the ātman (soul, self), and is based on the teachings and enlightenment of twenty-four teachers known as tirthankaras, with Rishabha as the first and Mahavira as the twenty-fourth.

Polycentric or syncretic sampradayas

Some are syncretic in nature which might adopt mixture of concepts from orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy such as realism of the Nyāya, naturalism of Vaiśeṣika, monism and knowledge of Self (Atman) as essential to liberation of Advaita, self-discipline of Yoga, asceticism and elements of theistic ideas. Some sub-schools share Tantric ideas with those found in some Buddhist traditions.

Hindu sampradayas

Hindus subscribe to a diversity of ideas on spirituality and traditions, but have no ecclesiastical order, no unquestionable religious authorities, no governing body, no prophet(s) nor any binding holy book; Hindus can choose to be polytheistic, pantheistic, monotheistic, monistic, agnostic, atheistic or humanist. Julius J. Lipner (2009), Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, 2nd Edition, Routledge, , page 8; Quote: "(...) one need not be religious in the minimal sense described to be accepted as a Hindu by Hindus, or describe oneself perfectly validly as Hindu. One may be polytheistic or monotheistic, monistic or pantheistic, even an agnostic, humanist or atheist, and still be considered a Hindu."Lester Kurtz (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace and Conflict, , Academic Press, 2008MK Gandhi
The Essence of Hinduism
Editor: VB Kher, Navajivan Publishing, see page 3; According to Gandhi, "a man may not believe in God and still call himself a Hindu."

Hinduism is subdivided into a number of major sampradayas. Of the historical division into six darsanas (philosophies), two schools, Vedanta and Yoga, are currently the most prominent. Classified by primary deity or deities, four major Hinduism modern currents are Vaishnavism (Vishnu), Shaivism (Shiva), Shaktism (Shakti) and Smartism (five deities treated as same). These deity-centered denominations feature a synthesis of various philosophies such as Samkhya, Yoga and Vedanta, as well as shared spiritual concepts such as moksha, dharma, karma, samsara, ethical precepts such as ahimsa, texts (Upanishads, Puranas, Mahabharata, Agamas), ritual grammar and rites of passage.

Vaishnava sampradayas

According to the Padma Purāṇa, one of the eighteen main Purāṇas, there are four Vaishnava ''sampradāyas'', which preserve the fruitful mantras:

During the Kali Yuga these sampradāyas appear in the holy place of Jaganatha Puri, and purify the entire earth.

Each of them were inaugurated by a deity, who appointed heads to these lineages:

Other major Vaishnav sampradaya are:

* Swaminarayan Sampradaya, founded in 1801 by Swaminarayan
* Pranami, Pranami Sampradaya
* Radha Vallabh Sampradaya
* Mahanam Sampraday
* Warkari, Warkari tradition
* Haridasi tradition
* Sadh Vaishnavism
* Manipuri Vaishnavism
* Samartha Sampradaya
* Bishnoi Panth, Bishnoi Sampradaya
* Matua Mahasangha

Shaivite sampradayas

There are three main Shaiva sampradayas known as "Kailasa Parampara" (Lineage from Kailash)- Nandinatha Sampradaya, Adinath Sampradaya and Shaiva Siddhanta, Meykanda Sampradaya.Satguru Sivaya Subramuniyaswami (2003) "Dancing with Siva: Hinduism's Contemporary Catechism" Himalayan Academy Publications

The Nandinatha Sampradaya traces its beginning to at least 200 BCE. Its founder and first known spiritual preceptor was the Maharshi Nandinatha. Nandinatha is said to have initiated eight disciples (Sanatkumar, Sanakar, Sanadanar, Sananthanar, Shivayogamuni, Patanjali, Vyaghrapada, and Tirumular) and sent them to various places to spread the teachings of non-dualistic Shaivism all over the world. Saiva Siddhanta Temple of Hawaii identifies itself as principle Matha or monestory of lineage . Spiritual lineage of the Nandinatha Sampradaya : Maharishi Nandinath→ Tirumular→→→ unknown→Kadaitswami→ Chellappaswami→ Yogaswami, Siva Yogaswami→Sivaya Subramuniyaswami → Bodhinatha Veylanswami

Tamil Shaiva Siddhanta philosophy is known as the descendant from the teaching of Sanatkumara, one of the Four Kumaras, Kumaras.(Sanatkumara→Satyanjana Darshini→Paranjyoti rishi→Meykandar.

Aghori and Nath are shavite.

Nandinatha and Meykandar Sampradayas are associated with the Shaiva Siddhanta while Adinath Sampradaya is associated with Nath Shaivism. Other popular Saivite sampradayas are Veerashaiva, Veerashaiva Samprdaya, Lingayatism, Lingayat Sampradaya and Srouta, Srouta Sampradaya

Advaita Vedanta sampradaya

= Advaita Mathas

=

Adi Sankara founded four (Sanskrit: ) (monasteries) to preserve and develop his philosophies. One each in the north, south, east and west of the Indian subcontinent, each headed by one of his direct disciples.

According to Nakamura, these mathas contributed to the influence of Shankara, which was "due to institutional factors". The mathas which he built exist until today, and preserve the teachings and influence of Shankara, "while the writings of other scholars before him came to be forgotten with the passage of time".

The table below gives an overview of the four ''Amnaya Mathas'' founded by Adi Shankara, and their details.

The current heads of the mathas trace their authority back to these figures, and each of the heads of these four mathas takes the title of Shankaracharya ("the learned Shankara") after Adi Sankara.

According to the tradition in Kerala, after Sankara's ''samadhi'' at Vadakkunnathan Temple, his disciples founded four mathas in Thrissur, namely Naduvil Madhom, Thrissur, Naduvil Madhom, Thekke Madhom, Idayil Madhom and Vadakke Madhom.

= Dashanami sampradaya

=

Dashanami Sampradaya, "Tradition of Ten Names", is a Hindu monastic tradition of ''ēkadaṇḍi sannyasins'' (wandering renunciates carrying a single staff) generally associated with the Advaita Vedanta tradition. They are distinct in their practices from the Shaivism, Saiva ''Tridaṇḍi sannyāsin''s or "trident renunciates", who continue to wear the sacred thread after renunciation, while ''ēkadaṇḍi sannyāsin''s do not.

The Ekadandi Vedāntins aim for moksha as the existence of the self in its natural condition indicated by the destruction of all its specific qualities. Any Hindu, irrespective of class, caste, age or gender can seek sannyāsa as an Ekadandi monk under the Dasanāmi tradition.

The Ekadandis or Dasanāmis had established monasteries in India and Nepal in ancient times.Mathas of the Dasanami-sanyasis of Lalitpur
/ref> After the decline of Buddhism, a section of the Ekadandis were organized by Adi Shankara in the 8th century in India to be associated with four ''matha, maṭha''s to provide a base for the growth of Hinduism. However, the association of the Dasanāmis with the Sankara ''maṭha''s remained nominal. Professor Kiyokazu Okita and Indologist B. N. K. Sharma says, Sannyasis in the lineage of Advaita of Adi Shankara and the Sannyasis in the lineage of Dvaita of Madhvacharya are all Ēkadaṇḍis.

Kaumaram sampradaya

Kaumaram is a sect of Hindus, especially found in South India and Sri Lanka where Lord Muruga Karttikeya is the Supreme Godhead. Lord Muruga is considered superior to the Trimurti. The worshippers of Lord Muruga are called Kaumaras.

Indonesian Hinduism

Hinduism dominated the island of Java (island), Java and Sumatra until the late 16th century, when a vast majority of the population converted to Islam. Only the Balinese people who formed a majority on the island of Bali, retained this form of Hinduism over the centuries. Theologically, Balinese or Indonesian Hinduism is closer to Shaivism than to other major sects of Hinduism. The adherents consider Acintya the supreme god, and all other gods as his manifestations.

The term "Agama Hindu Dharma", the endonymous Indonesian language, Indonesian name for "Indonesian Hinduism" can also refer to the traditional practices in Kalimantan, Sumatra, Sulawesi and other places in Indonesia, where people have started to identify and accept their Āgama (Hinduism), agamas as Hinduism or Hindu worship has been revived. The revival of Hinduism in Indonesia has given rise to a national organisation, the Parisada Hindu Dharma.

Shakta sampradaya

There are 2 Shakta Sampradayas, which revere Shakti - the feminine manifestation of Ishvara. They are as follows:

# Kalikula: Prevalent in Bengal, Assam, Nepal, and Odisha. Primary deity is Kali
# Srikula: Prevalent in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Andhra, Telangana, Karnataka, and Sri Lanka. Primary deity is Lalita Devi

Smarta Sampradaya

Smarta tradition, Smarta Sampradaya (स्मार्त), developed around the beginning of the Common Era, reflects a Hindu synthesis of four philosophical strands: Mimamsa, Advaita Vedanta, Advaita, Yoga, and theism. The Smarta tradition rejects theistic sectarianism, and it is notable for the domestic worship of five shrines with five deities, all treated as equal – Shiva, Vishnu, Surya, Ganesha, and Shakti. The Smarta tradition contrasted with the older Śrauta, Shrauta tradition, which was based on elaborate rituals and rites. There has been considerable overlap in the ideas and practices of the Smarta tradition with other significant historic movements within Hinduism, namely Shaivism, Vaishnavism, and Shaktism.Sanderson, Alexis. "The Saiva Age: The Rise and Dominance of Saivism during the Early Medieval Period". In ''Genesis and Development of Tantrism'', edited by Shingo Einoo. Tokyo: Institute of Oriental Culture, University of Tokyo, 2009. Institute of Oriental Culture Special Series, 23, pp. 276–277. Even though Smarta sampradaya regards Adi Shankara as its founder or reformer, advaita sampradaya is not a Shaiva sect, despite the historical links with Shaivism: Advaitins are non-sectarian, and they advocate worship of Shiva and Vishnu equally with that of the other deities of Hinduism, like Sakti, Ganapati and others. Shankara championed that the ultimate reality is impersonal and ''Nirguna Brahman, Nirguna'' (attributeless) and that any symbolic god serves the same equivalent purpose.L. Williamson (2010), ''Transcendent in America: Hindu-inspired Meditation Movements as New Religion'', New York University Press, , page 89 Inspired by this belief, the Smarta tradition followers, along with the five Hindu gods include a sixth impersonal god in their practice. The tradition has been described by William Jackson as "advaitin, monistic in its outlook".

Other classic vedic sampradayas

Shrautism

Shrauta communities are very rare in India, the most well known being the ultra-orthodox Nambudiri Brahmins of Kerala. They follow the "Purva-Mimamsa" (earlier portion of Vedas) in contrast to Vedanta followed by other Brahmins. They place importance on the performance of Vedic Sacrifice (Yajna). The Nambudiri Brahmins are famous for their preservation of the ancient Soma (drink), Somayaagam, Agnicayana rituals which have vanished in other parts of India.

Suryaism / Saurism

The Suryaites or Sauras are followers of a Hindu denomination that started in Vedic tradition, and worship Surya as the main visible form of the Saguna Brahman. The Saura tradition was influential in South Asia, particularly in the west, north and other regions, with numerous Surya idols and temples built between 800 and 1000 CE. The Konark Sun Temple was built in mid 13th century. During the iconoclasm of Islamic invasions and Hindu–Muslim wars, the temples dedicated to Sun-god were among those desecrated, images smashed and the resident priests of Saura tradition were killed, states André Wink. The Surya tradition of Hinduism declined in the 12th and 13th century CE and today remains as a very small movement except in Bihar / Jharkhand and Eastern Uttar Pradesh. Sun worship has continued to be a dominant practice in Bihar / Jharkhand and Eastern Uttar Pradesh in the form of Chhath Puja which is considered the primary festival of importance in these regions.

Later sampradayas

Ganapatism

Ganapatism is a Hindu denomination in which Lord Ganesha is worshipped as the main form of the Saguna Brahman. This sect was widespread and influential in the past and has remained important in Maharashtra.

Newer sampradayas

The new movements that arose in the 19th to 20th century include:

* New groups
** Ananda Marga
** Arya Samaj
** Ayyavazhi
** Brahma Kumaris
** Chinmaya Mission
** Divine Life Society
** Ramakrishna Mission and Ramakrishna Math
** Ravidas Panth
*** Satnampanth
** Shri Ram Chandra Mission
** Sri Aurobindo Ashram

* Satpanth, Sat Panth
** Dadu Dayal, Dadu Panth (Part of the Sant Mat)
** Kabir Panth (Part of the Sant Mat)
** Pranami Sampraday
** Sathya Sai Organization, Sathya Sai sampradaya

* Yoga and meditation based
** Art of Living Foundation, Art of Living
** Isha Foundation
** Himalayan Institute of Yoga Science and Philosophy, Himalayan Yoga and Philosophy
** Prarthana Samaj
** Sahaja, Sahaj Panth (Buddhist and Hindu)
*** Sahaja Yoga
** Self-Realization Fellowship / Yogoda Satsanga Society of India, Yogoda Satsanga
** Swadhyay Parivar
** Transcendental Meditation movement, Transcendental Meditation

* Others
** Hanuman Foundation
** Hindutva
** Inchegeri Sampradaya
** Kapadi Sampradaya
** Mahima Dharma
** Matua Mahasangha
** Nath, Nath Panth
** Ramsnehi Sampradaya
** Varkari, Varkari Panth (Hindu)

Buddhist sampradaya

Buda sampradaya or Buddha sampradāya is a classification based on the observance of Dutch ethnographers of Brahmana caste of Balinese Hinduism into two: Siwa (Shiva) and Buda (Buddha). The other castes were similarly further sub-classified by these 19th-century and early-20th-century ethnographers based on numerous criteria ranging from profession, endogamy or exogamy or polygamy, and a host of other factors in a manner similar to ''castas'' in Spanish colonies such as Mexico, and caste system studies in British colonies such as India. This concept of Buddha Sampradāya could be applied to all Buddhist communities.

Jain sampradaya

The Jain sampardaya has various sects or schools of thoughts:

* Terapanth (disambiguation), Tera Panth (Jain)
** Digambara Terapanth
** Śvetāmbara Terapanth
* Taran Panth (Jain)

Sikh Samprada

Khalsa, Khalsa Panth i.e. Sikhism has various sects.

Early Sampardayas (Sampardai)

Nihang, Akaali Nihangs – Typically viewed as the armed forces of the Sikh Panth. As institutionalised by Guru Gobind Singh, the 10th Guru. Within this order there are the two main ones: Buddha Dal - army of elders, and Tarna Dal - army of youth. Connected to these two are several smaller sub-orders. Buddha Dal holds authority in all matters concerning the Nihang, Akaali Nihang order - the president of Buddha Dal was previously always also the president of the Akal Takht, Akaal Takht, the highest temporal authority of the Sikh Panth. Technically the sect belongs to the Sahibzada (son) of the 10th Guru, Fateh Singh (Sikhism), Baba Fateh Singh.

Nirmala (sect), Nirmalas – Indic scholars within the Sikh Panth. Traditionally studying a vast array of Indian religions, Indic and some non-Indic literature, as well as producing texts. They also engage in dialogue and discourse with other Dharma, Dharmik paths. Claim institutionalization by the 10th Guru also. According to their traditional beliefs, the Nirmala Sikh tradition was founded by Guru Gobind Singh in the late 17th century when he sent five Sikhs to Varanasi (Kansi) to learn Sanskrit and Hindu religious texts. Notable Nirmalas include Kavi Santokh Singh (who was also a student of Giaani Samparda), and Tara Singh Narotam, Pundit Tara Singh. This Samparda still exist today.

Sant Samparda - A traditional ''Khalsai'' order, tracing back to the tenth Sikh Guru, Guru Gobind Singh, also known as Bhai Daya Singh Samparda. This ''Taksal'' (school) was founded by Daya Singh, Bhai Daya Singh, the ''Mukhi'' of the original Panj Pyare, Panj Pyaare, under the ''hukam''(command) of Guru Gobind Singh in the early 1700s, aiming to pass down the divine knowledge of ''Naam'' and ''Gurbani'' to the community. The word 'Sant' translates to 'saint', an enlightened being who has attained spiritual enlightenment and divine knowledge through union with God in Sikhism, God. Many prominent saints have emerged from this Samparda, including Sahib Singh Bedi, Baba Sahib Singh Bedi, Bhai Maharaj Singh, Baba Maharaj Singh, Sant Karam Singh, Sant Isher Singh and Sant Ranjit Singh Virakkat.

Udasi – An ascetic order who were traditionally caretakers of Gurdwaras and involved in missionary work. Certain practises of theirs diverge from mainstream Sikh belief although they do not promote this to others. The order was started by Sri Chand, Baba Sri Chand, the eldest Sahibzada (son) of the 1st Guru, Guru Nanak. Baba Sri Chand is their Ustad, Gurdev/Ustadh. Still exist today.

Sevapanthis – Philanthropists, involved in helping others or doing seva - free service without expectation of reward. They are also engaged in scholarly work. The order was first headed by Bhai Kanhaiya, Bhai Kahnaiya, a Sikh of the 10th Guru - who famously helped wounded enemy soldiers during war time by providing medical care. Hardly exist today.

Damdami Taksal, Gyaaniyan Samparda – the university of Sikhism, Sikhi, whilst technically not an order, it essentially serves as one.Singh, Nirbhai. ''Philosophy of Sikhism: Reality and its manifestations''. Atlantic Publishers & Distri, 1990. Made up from individuals belonging to all of the above sects. Many branches within this order.

The Damdami Taksal claims direct lineage from the Giani Samparda, although this is a topic of contention.

Later sampardayas

Later sects which emerged in Sikhism are Namdhari, Nirankari, and Radha Soami.

Syncretic sects

The Ravidas Panth, Ravidasiya sect combines practices of Sikhism and Hinduism.

See also

; Hindu
* Hindu denominations
* Hindu philosophy
* Hindu texts
* Hindu reform movements
* List of Hindu gurus

; Buddhist
* Buddhist philosophy
* Schools of Buddhism, Buddhist denominations
* Lineage (Buddhism), Buddhism parampara

; Jain
* Jain schools and branches, Jain denominations
* Jain philosophy
* Tirthankara

; Sikh
* Sects of Sikhism, Sikhism denominations
* Sikhism#Philosophy and teachings, Sikhism philosophy
* Sikh gurus

Notes

References

Written citations

Web citations

Sources

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Further reading

* Federico Squarcini, 2011
Boundaries, Dynamics and Construction of Traditions in South Asia

* Leela Prasad, 2012
Poetics of Conduct: Oral Narrative and Moral Being in a South Indian Town

* Monika Boehm-Tettelbach, Monika Horstmann, Heidi Rika Maria Pauwels, 2009
''Patronage and Popularisation, Pilgrimage and Procession''

{{Portal bar, Hinduism, Religion

Hindu philosophical concepts