Between the 17th and 19th centuries,
officer's commissions in infantry and cavalry units of the
English and
British armies could be purchased. This avoided the need to wait to be promoted for merit or seniority, and was the usual way to obtain a rank in both armies. The practice began in 1683 during the reign of
Charles II of England
Charles II (29 May 1630 – 6 February 1685) was King of Scotland from 1649 until 1651 and King of England, Scotland, and King of Ireland, Ireland from the 1660 Restoration of the monarchy until his death in 1685.
Charles II was the eldest su ...
. It existed until it was abolished on 1 November 1871 as part of the
Cardwell Reforms. Formally, the purchase price of a commission was a cash bond for good behaviour, liable to be forfeited if the officer in question was found guilty of
cowardice
Cowardice is a characteristic wherein excessive fear prevents an individual from taking a risk or facing danger. It is the opposite of courage. As a label, "cowardice" indicates a failure of character in the face of a challenge. One who succumb ...
,
desertion
Desertion is the abandonment of a military duty or post without permission (a pass, liberty or leave) and is done with the intention of not returning. This contrasts with unauthorized absence (UA) or absence without leave (AWOL ), which ...
, or
gross misconduct.
Great Britain and Ireland
Only commissions in
cavalry
Historically, cavalry (from the French word ''cavalerie'', itself derived from ''cheval'' meaning "horse") are groups of soldiers or warriors who Horses in warfare, fight mounted on horseback. Until the 20th century, cavalry were the most mob ...
and
infantry
Infantry, or infantryman are a type of soldier who specialize in ground combat, typically fighting dismounted. Historically the term was used to describe foot soldiers, i.e. those who march and fight on foot. In modern usage, the term broadl ...
regiment
A regiment is a military unit. Its role and size varies markedly, depending on the country, military service, service, or administrative corps, specialisation.
In Middle Ages, Medieval Europe, the term "regiment" denoted any large body of l ...
s could be purchased, up to the rank of
colonel
Colonel ( ; abbreviated as Col., Col, or COL) is a senior military Officer (armed forces), officer rank used in many countries. It is also used in some police forces and paramilitary organizations.
In the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries, a colon ...
. Commissions in the
Royal Engineers
The Corps of Royal Engineers, usually called the Royal Engineers (RE), and commonly known as the ''Sappers'', is the engineering arm of the British Army. It provides military engineering and other technical support to the British Armed Forces ...
and the
Royal Artillery
The Royal Regiment of Artillery, commonly referred to as the Royal Artillery (RA) and colloquially known as "The Gunners", is one of two regiments that make up the artillery arm of the British Army. The Royal Regiment of Artillery comprises t ...
were awarded to those who graduated from a course at the
Royal Military Academy,
Woolwich and subsequent promotion was by seniority. Moreover, the
Royal Navy
The Royal Navy (RN) is the naval warfare force of the United Kingdom. It is a component of His Majesty's Naval Service, and its officers hold their commissions from the King of the United Kingdom, King. Although warships were used by Kingdom ...
never practised the sale of commissions, officer promotion being solely by merit or seniority (at least in theory).
Values
The official values of commissions varied by branch (see below). Payments in excess of regulation (non-official) usually accorded with the differing social prestige of different regiments.
For example, in 1837 the costs of commissions were:
These prices were incremental. To purchase a promotion, an officer only had to pay the difference in price between his existing rank and the desired rank.
Regimental and social factors
Theoretically, a commission could be sold only for its official value and was to be offered first to the next most senior officer in the same regiment. In practice, there was also an unofficial "over-regulation price" or "regimental value", which might double the official cost. Desirable commissions in fashionable regiments were often sold to the highest bidder after an auction. A self-interested senior officer might well regard his commission as his pension fund and would encourage the increase of its value. An officer who incurred or inherited debts might sell his commission to raise funds.
Social exclusiveness was preserved not only by money, as regimental colonels were permitted to – and often did – refuse the purchase of a commission in their regiment by a man who had the necessary money but was not from a social background to their liking. This was especially the case in the Household and Guards regiments, which were dominated by the
nobility
Nobility is a social class found in many societies that have an aristocracy. It is normally appointed by and ranked immediately below royalty. Nobility has often been an estate of the realm with many exclusive functions and characteristics. T ...
. Elsewhere, however, it was not unknown for Colonels to lend deserving senior non-commissioned officers or warrant officers the funds necessary to purchase commissions.
Not all first commissions or promotions were paid for. If an officer was
killed in action
Killed in action (KIA) is a casualty classification generally used by militaries to describe the deaths of their personnel at the hands of enemy or hostile forces at the moment of action. The United States Department of Defense, for example, ...
or appointed to the
Staff (usually through being promoted to
Major General), this created a series of "non-purchase vacancies" within his regiment. These could also occur when new regiments or battalions were created, or when the establishments of existing units were expanded. However, all vacancies resulting from officers dying of disease, retiring (whether on full or half pay) or resigning their commissions were "purchase vacancies".
[ A period, usually of several years, had to elapse before an officer who succeeded to a non-purchase vacancy could sell his commission. For instance, if a Captain were promoted to Major to fill a non-purchase vacancy but decided to quit the Army immediately afterwards, he would receive only the value of his Captain's commission.
]
Active service
Various regulations required minimum durations of service in a given rank and restricted officers from selling or exchanging their commissions to avoid active service. Exceptions and exemptions from these were at the discretion of the Commander in Chief. In 1806 there was a major scandal when it was discovered that Mary Anne Clarke, the mistress of then Commander in Chief Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany, was engaged in selling commissions for her personal profit.
The worst potential effects of the system were mitigated during intensive conflicts such as the Napoleonic Wars
{{Infobox military conflict
, conflict = Napoleonic Wars
, partof = the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars
, image = Napoleonic Wars (revision).jpg
, caption = Left to right, top to bottom:Battl ...
by heavy casualties among senior ranks, which resulted in many non-purchase vacancies, and also discouraged wealthy dilettantes who were not keen on active service, thereby ensuring that many commissions were exchanged for their nominal value only. There was also the possibility of promotion to brevet army ranks for deserving officers. An officer might be a subaltern or Captain in his regiment, but might hold a higher local rank if attached to other units or allied armies, or might be given a higher Army rank by the Commander-in-Chief or the Monarch in recognition of meritorious service or a notable feat of bravery. Officers bearing dispatches giving news of a victory (such as Waterloo), often received such promotion, and might be specially selected by a General in the field for this purpose.
Abolition of the practice
The malpractices associated with the purchase of commissions reached their height in the long peace between the Napoleonic Wars and the Crimean War
The Crimean War was fought between the Russian Empire and an alliance of the Ottoman Empire, the Second French Empire, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and the Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861), Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont fro ...
, when James Brudenell, Lord Cardigan paid £35,000 () for the lieutenant-colonelcy of the stylish 11th Hussars.[.] It became obvious in the Crimea that the system of purchase often resulted in incompetence, such as that which resulted in the Charge of the Light Brigade, led by Cardigan. An inquiry (the Commission on Purchase) was established in 1855, and commented unfavourably on the institution. The practice of purchase of commissions was finally abolished as part of the 1871 Cardwell reforms which made many changes to the structure and procedures of the Army.
Other armies
During the eighteenth century the purchase of commissions was a common practice in many European armies, although not usually to the same extent as in Britain. In Spain, after having enlisted as a midshipman in the Spanish Navy
The Spanish Navy, officially the Armada, is the Navy, maritime branch of the Spanish Armed Forces and one of the oldest active naval forces in the world. The Spanish Navy was responsible for a number of major historic achievements in navigation ...
in 1733, Pedro Caro Fontes, the future 2nd Marquis of La Romana, purchased his commission as a lieutenant colonel of a dragoon regiment the following year.[. Martín-Lanuza, Alberto]
"Pedro Caro Fontes y Maza de Lizana". ''Diccionario Biográfico electrónico'' (''DB~e'').
Real Academia de la Historia. Retrieved 4 August 2023.
The practice had been discontinued for the French infantry in 1758, although retained in the socially more exclusive cavalry until the French Revolution. The Austrian government had attempted to place restrictions on the practice, although it continued informally. Only in the Prussian Army was it unknown. In Russia, Peter the Great
Peter I (, ;
– ), better known as Peter the Great, was the Sovereign, Tsar and Grand Prince of all Russia, Tsar of all Russia from 1682 and the first Emperor of Russia, Emperor of all Russia from 1721 until his death in 1725. He reigned j ...
mandated that all officers must start as privates, so the common method was to register an infant scion of a noble family as a private; reporting for service at the age of 15, the boy would already be promoted on seniority to a junior lieutenant or equivalent rank. This practice became gradually obsolete during the early 19th century and was formally abolished by the Russian military reforms of 1864.
References
Sources
* Bruce, Anthony P. C.: ''The Purchase System in the British Army, 1660–1871.'' Royal Historical Society, London 1980
* Farwell, Byron, ''Queen Victoria's Little Wars''. Wordsworth Military Library, 1973.
* Holmes, Richard. ''Redcoat''. HarperCollins, Hammersmith, 2001.
*
* Woodham-Smith, Cecil ''The Reason Why: The Story of the Fatal Charge of the Light Brigade''. Penguin, 1953; Reprint edition 1991.
Further reading
*
External links
South African Defence Journal
{{DEFAULTSORT:Sale Of Commissions
Military history of the United Kingdom