Saionji Kinmochi

Prince was a Japanese politician who served as prime minister of Japan from 1906 to 1908, and from 1911 to 1912. As the last surviving member of the '' genrō'', the group of senior statesmen who had directed policy during the Meiji era, he was one of the most influential voices in Japanese politics from the mid-1920s to the early 1930s. For much of his career, Saionji worked to diminish the influence of the Imperial Japanese Army in political issues.

Born in Kyoto to a noble family, Saionji took part in the Boshin War and Meiji Restoration of 1868. From 1871 to 1880, he studied European law and political institutions in France, and founded Meiji University in 1881. In 1882, Saionji again traveled to Europe with Itō Hirobumi to study constitutional law. On his return, he joined the Privy Council, serving as its president from 1900 to 1903, and twice served as Minister of Education in Itō's cabinets. In 1900, Saionji assisted Itō in organizing the Rikken Seiyūkai party. Both of Saionji's premierships ended under pressure from an expansionist military. He led the Japanese delegation at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, and was given the title of prince in 1920. Saionji was on the list of those to be assassinated in the February 26 incident, a failed coup in 1936, but survived and died in 1940.

He was also the last Genrō (elder statesman) of Japan.

Early life

Kinmochi was born in Kyoto as the son of Udaijin Tokudaiji Kin'ito (1821–1883), head of a ''kuge'' family of court nobility. He was adopted by another ''kuge'' family, the Saionji, in 1851. However, he grew up near his biological parents, since both the Tokudaiji and Saionji lived very near the Kyoto Imperial Palace. The young Saionji Kinmochi was frequently ordered to visit the palace as a playmate of the young prince who later became Emperor Meiji. Over time they became close friends. Kinmochi's biological brother Tokudaiji Sanetsune later became the Grand Chamberlain of Japan. Another younger brother was adopted into the very wealthy Sumitomo family and as Sumitomo Kichizaemon became the head of the Sumitomo zaibatsu. Sumitomo money largely financed Saionji's political career. His close relationship to the Imperial Court opened all doors to him. In his later political life, as the "last elder," he gave advice to the Taisho and Showa Emperors and had a great influence on the political world as a practical selector of prime ministers.

Meiji Restoration

As the heir of a noble family, Saionji participated in politics from an early age and was known for his brilliant talent. He took part in the climactic events of his time, the Boshin War, the revolution in Japan of 1867 and 1868, which overthrew the Tokugawa shogunate and installed the young Emperor Meiji as the (nominal) head of the government. Some noblemen at the Imperial Court considered the war to be a private dispute of the samurai of Satsuma and Chōshū against those of the Tokugawa. Saionji held the strong opinion that the nobles of the Imperial Court should seize the initiative and take part in the war. He participated in various battles as an imperial representative.

One of his first encounters involved taking Kameoka Castle without a fight. The next encounter was at Sasayama Castle. Several hundred Samurai from both sides met on the road nearby, but the defenders immediately surrendered. Then Fukuchiyama surrendered without a fight. By this time he had acquired an Imperial banner made by Iwakura Tomomi, featuring a sun and moon on a red field. Other Samurai did not want to attack the army with the imperial banner, and readily deserted the ''shōgun''. After two weeks Saionji reached Kitsuki, and following another bloodless encounter, Saionji returned by ship to Osaka. Matters did eventually come to an end at Nagaoka Castle. However, Saionji was relieved from command in the actual battle and appointed governor of Echigo.

Overseas study tour

After the Meiji Restoration, Saionji resigned. With the support of Ōmura Masujirō he studied French in Tokyo. He left Japan on the SS ''Costa Rica'' with a group of thirty other Japanese students sailing to San Francisco. He traveled on to Washington, D.C. where he met Ulysses Grant, President of the United States of America. He then crossed the Atlantic, spent 13 days in London sightseeing, before finally arriving in Paris on 27 May 1871. Paris was in the turmoil of the Commune, and Paris was not safe for Saionji – indeed his tutor was shot when they stumbled upon a street battle. Saionji went to Switzerland and Nice, before settling in Marseille, where he learned French with the accent of that city. He made his way to Paris following the suppression of the Commune. He studied law at the University of Paris and became involved with Émile Acollas, who had set up the Acollas Law School for foreign students studying law in Paris. These were the early years of the Third Republic, a time of high idealism in France. Saionji arrived in France with highly reactionary views but he was influenced by Acollas (a former member of the League of Peace and Freedom) and became the most liberal of Japanese major political figures of his generation. When the Iwakura Mission visited Paris in 1872, Iwakura was quite worried about the radicalism of Saionji and other Japanese students. He made many acquaintances in France, including Franz Liszt, the Goncourt brothers, and the fellow Sorbonne student Georges Clemenceau.

On his return to Japan, he founded Meiji Law School, which later evolved into Meiji University in 1880.

In 1882, Itō Hirobumi visited Europe to research the constitutional systems of each major European country, and he asked Saionji to accompany him, as they knew each other very well. After the trip, he was appointed ambassador to Austria-Hungary and later to Germany and Belgium.

Political career

Returning to Japan, Saionji joined the Privy Council, and served as vice president of the House of Peers. He also served as Minister of Education in the 2nd and 3rd Itō administrations (1894–1896, 1898) and 2nd Matsukata administration. During his tenure, he strove to improve the quality of the educational curriculum towards an international (i.e. western) standard.

In 1900, Itō founded the ''Rikken Seiyūkai'' political party, and Saionji joined as one of the first members. Due to his experiences in Europe, Saionji had a liberal political point of view and supported parliamentary government. He was one of the few early politicians who claimed that the majority party in parliament had to be the basis for forming a cabinet.

Saionji became president of the Privy Council in August 1900, and president of the ''Rikken Seiyūkai'' in 1903.

Prime Minister

From 7 January 1906, to 14 July 1908, and again from 30 August 1911, to 21 December 1912, Saionji served as Prime Minister of Japan.

Both his ministries were marked by continuing tension between Saionji and the powerful arch-conservative genrō, Field Marshal Yamagata Aritomo. Saionji and Itō saw political parties as a useful part of the machinery of government; Yamagata looked on political parties and all democratic institutions as quarrelsome, corrupt, and irrational.

Saionji had to struggle with the national budget with many demands and finite resources, Yamagata sought ceaselessly the greatest expansion of the army. Saionji's first cabinet was brought down in 1908 by conservatives led by Yamagata who were alarmed at the growth of communism and socialism, who felt the government's suppression of communists and socialists (after a parade and riots) had been insufficiently forceful.

The fall of Saionji's second cabinet was a major reverse to constitutional government. The Taishō Crisis (so named for the newly enthroned emperor) erupted in late November 1912, out of the continuing bitter dispute over the military budget. The army minister, General Uehara, unable to get the cabinet to agree on the army's demands, resigned. Saionji sought to replace Uehara.

A Japanese law (intended to give added power to the army and navy) required that the army minister must be a lieutenant general or general on active duty. All of the eligible generals, on Yamagata's instruction, refused to serve in Saionji's cabinet. The cabinet was then forced to resign. The precedent had been established that the army could force the resignation of a cabinet.

Saionji's political philosophy was heavily influenced by his background; he believed the Imperial Court should be guarded and that it should not participate directly in politics: the same strategy employed by noblemen and the Court in Kyoto for hundreds of years. This was another point in which he was opposed by nationalists in the Army, who wished for the Emperor to participate in Japanese politics directly and thus weaken both parliament and the cabinet. Nationalists also accused him of being a "globalist".

Elder statesman

On 21 December 1912, Saionji was appointed a '' genrō''. The role of the ''genrō'' at this time was diminishing; their main function was to choose the prime ministers – formally, to nominate candidates for prime minister to the Emperor for approval, but no Emperor ever rejected their advice. From the death of Matsukata Masayoshi in 1924, Saionji was the sole surviving ''genrō''. He exercised his prerogative of naming the prime ministers very nearly until his death in 1940 at the age of 90. Saionji, when he could, chose as prime minister the president of the majority party in the Diet, but his power was always constrained by the necessity of at least the tacit consent of the army and navy. He could choose political leaders only when they might be strong enough to form an effective government. He nominated military men and non-party politicians when he felt necessary.

In 1919, Saionji led the Japanese delegation at the Paris Peace Conference, though his role remained largely confined to a symbolic role due to ill health. During the negotiations, Saionji proposed the addition of a " racial equality clause" to the Covenant of the League of Nations, though this met with strong American and Australian resistance (both nations being racially segregated) and was not adopted. Saionji, by now an unmarried 70-year old, was accompanied to Paris by his son, his favorite daughter, and his current mistress. In 1920, he was given the title ''kōshaku'' (, Prince) as an honor for a life in public service.

In 1932, following the assassination of Prime Minister Inukai Tsuyoshi in the May 15 Incident, the government ceased to rely on political parties. However, Saionji maintained his influence by recommending two naval admirals close to him, Saitō Makoto and Okada Keisuke as prime minister. In 1934, during the process of appointing Saitō's successor, Saionji was assisted by the ''Jūshin'' (), a group of senior statesmen composed of constitutional monarchists. The appointment of Okada as prime minister was especially significant, not only because Saionji strongly disliked Hiranuma Kiichirō, the Vice President of Privy Council who harbored ambitions for the premiership, and also as a deliberate check against him.

He was detested by Japanese militarists and was on the list of those to be assassinated in the attempted coup of February 26, 1936. Upon receiving news of the mutiny, Saionji fled in his car but was pursued for a great distance by a suspicious vehicle that he and his companions assumed held soldiers bent on his murder. In actuality, it held newspaper reporters.

For much of his career, Saionji tried to diminish the influence of the Imperial Japanese Army in political issues. He was one of the most liberal of Emperor Hirohito's advisors, and favored friendly relations with Great Britain and the United States. However, he was careful to pick his battles, and would concede defeat when he knew he could not win (e.g. his inability to prevent the Tripartite Pact).

Political scientist Kenneth Colegrove wrote in 1936 that Saionji had "extensive" influence over Japanese politics.

Relationship with Ritsumeikan University

Saionji Kinmochi was involved in the founding of Ritsumeikan University, one of Japan’s prestigious universities. In 1869, Saionji established a private academy named Ritsumeikan within his residence in Kyoto Imperial Palace. Scholars such as the Confucianist Tomioka Tessai also taught at this academy. However, the government, sensing unrest in the academy’s activities (some suggest that jealousy toward the flourishing Ritsumeikan, located near the short-lived Kyoto Daigakkō, which was closed after only three years, played a role), demanded its closure. As a result, the academy was forced to shut down after only one year. Saionji is said to have remarked, “It’s unfortunate, but I will comply,” while noting that the closure was based on a misunderstanding by government officials.

Later, Saionji’s secretary, Nakagawa Kojūrō, established the Kyoto Hōsei School. Saionji’s younger brother, Suehiro Tamemaro, was also involved in the school’s founding. Initially offering only law and politics courses, the school eventually added an economics department, necessitating a name change. Nakagawa sought Saionji’s permission to use the name Ritsumeikan, to which Saionji readily agreed—reportedly with great delight.
Strictly speaking, the Kyoto Hōsei School founded by Nakagawa merely adopted the name of the former private academy and had no institutional continuity with it. Nonetheless, Saionji enthusiastically supported the development of Ritsumeikan University. Indeed, his younger brother Suehiro served in the school’s administration, and through Saionji’s personal network, donations from figures such as Sumitomo Zaibatsu head Sumitomo Tomomochi were solicited.

Furthermore, the Saionji family permitted the use of its family crest by the Ritsumeikan. Saionji also wrote the calligraphy for the Ritsumeikan plaque, which remains a symbol of the university to this day. On his final visit to Kyoto, he stopped at Ritsumeikan University and spent some time gazing at the plaque.

Thus, Saionji and Ritsumeikan University were closely connected. Even today, the university officially recognizes 1869—the founding year of the original Ritsumeikan private academy—as its year of origin (even though the Kyoto Hōsei School was founded in 1890), with Saionji Kinmochi acknowledged as the university’s spiritual founder, and Nakagawa Kojūrō as its actual founder.

Honours

''From the corresponding article in the Japanese Wikipedia''

Titles

*Marquess (7 July 1884)
*Prince (7 September 1920)

Japanese decorations

* Grand Cordon of the Order of the Sacred Treasure (21 June 1895)
* Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun with Paulownia Flowers (14 September 1907)
** Grand Cordon of the Order of the Rising Sun (5 June 1896)
** Second Class of the Order of the Rising Sun (29 May 1888)
** Third Class of the Order of the Rising Sun (11 March 1882)
* Collar of the Order of the Chrysanthemum (10 November 1928)
** Grand Cordon of the Order of the Chrysanthemum (21 December 1918)

Other decorations

* Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Pius IX (25 February 1888)
* Knight First Class of the Order of the Iron Crown (9 May 1888)
* Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Netherlands Lion (16 March 1891)
* 1st Class of the Order of the Red Eagle (15 October 1891)
* First Class of the Order of the Medjidie (8 March 1894)
* Order of the White Eagle (17 March 1896)
* Grand Cross of the Order of Charles III (10 November 1896)
* Grand Cross of the Order of the Dannebrog (10 February 1898)
* Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St. Michael and St. George (GCMG) (20 February 1906)The London Gazette, 15 May 1906
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* Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour (23 October 1907)
* Order of St. Alexander Nevsky (30 October 1907)

Order of precedence

*Junior First Rank (25 November 1940; posthumous)
*Senior second rank (20 December 1898)
*Second rank (11 December 1893)
*Senior third rank (19 December 1878; restored)
*Senior third rank (5 of 7th month 1862; relinquished 3rd of 7th 1869)
*Third rank (25 April 1861)
*Senior fourth rank, junior grade (5 February 1856)
*Fourth rank, senior grade (22 January 1855)
*Fourth rank, junior grade (22 January 1854)
*Senior fifth rank, junior grade (21 January 1853)
*Fifth rank, senior grade (27 December 1852)
*Fifth rank, junior grade (early 1852)

Ancestry

See also

* List of Japanese ministers, envoys and ambassadors to Germany

References

Further reading

* Clements, Jonathan. ''Makers of the Modern World: Prince Saionji''. Haus Publishing (2008).
* Conners, Leslie. ''The Emperor's Adviser: Saionji Kinmochi and Pre-War Japanese Politics''. Routledge Kegan & Paul (1987).
* Hackett, Roger F. ''Yamagata Aritomo in the Rise of Modern Japan''. Harvard University Press (1971).
* Harada, Kumao. ''The Saionji-Harada memoirs, 1931–1940: Complete translation into English''. University Publications of America (1978). ASIN: B000724T6W
* Oka Yoshitake, et al. ''Five Political Leaders of Modern Japan: Ito Hirobumi, Okuma Shigenobu, Hara Takashi, Inukai Tsuyoshi, and Saionji Kimmochi''. University of Tokyo Press (1984).

External links

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