A Sanskrit manuscript of Lotus Sutra in South Turkestan Brahmi script

''Sutra'' ( sa, सूत्र, translit=sūtra, translit-std=IAST, translation=string, thread)Monier Williams, ''Sanskrit English Dictionary'',

Oxford University Press Oxford University Press (OUP) is the university press of the University of Oxford. It is the largest university press in the world, and its printing history dates back to the 1480s. Having been officially granted the legal right to print book ...

, Entry fo
''sutra''
page 1241 in Indian literary traditions refers to an aphorism or a collection of aphorisms in the form of a manual or, more broadly, a condensed manual or text. Sutras are a genre of ancient and medieval Indian texts found in

Hinduism Hinduism () is an Indian religion or ''dharma'', a religious and universal order or way of life by which followers abide. As a religion, it is the world's third-largest, with over 1.2–1.35 billion followers, or 15–16% of the global po ...

Buddhism Buddhism ( , ), also known as Buddha Dharma and Dharmavinaya (), is an Indian religion or philosophical tradition based on teachings attributed to the Buddha. It originated in northern India as a -movement in the 5th century BCE, and ...

and

Jainism Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current time cycle being ...

. In

, sutras are a distinct type of literary composition, a compilation of short aphoristic statements.Gavin Flood (1996), ''An Introduction to Hinduism'', Cambridge University Press, , pages 54–55 Each sutra is any short rule, like a theorem distilled into few words or syllables, around which teachings of ritual, philosophy, grammar, or any field of knowledge can be woven. The oldest sutras of Hinduism are found in the Brahmana and Aranyaka layers of the

Vedas upright=1.2, The Vedas are ancient Sanskrit texts of Hinduism. Above: A page from the '' Atharvaveda''. The Vedas (, , ) are a large body of religious texts originating in ancient India. Composed in Vedic Sanskrit, the texts constitute th ...

. Every school of

Hindu philosophy Hindu philosophy encompasses the philosophies, world views and teachings of Hinduism that emerged in Ancient India which include six systems ('' shad-darśana'') – Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa and Vedanta.Andrew Nicholson ...

, Vedic guides for rites of passage, various fields of arts, law, and social ethics developed respective sutras, which help teach and transmit ideas from one generation to the next. In

, sutras, also known as ''suttas'', are canonical scriptures, many of which are regarded as records of the oral teachings of

Gautama Buddha Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha, was a wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism. According to Buddhist tradition, he was born in ...

. They are not aphoristic, but are quite detailed, sometimes with repetition. This may reflect a philological root of ''sukta'' (well spoken), rather than ''sutra'' (thread). In

, sutras, also known as ''suyas'', are canonical sermons of

Mahavira Mahavira (Sanskrit: महावीर) also known as Vardhaman, was the 24th ''tirthankara'' (supreme preacher) of Jainism. He was the spiritual successor of the 23rd ''tirthankara'' Parshvanatha. Mahavira was born in the early part of the 6t ...

contained in the Jain Agamas as well as some later (post-canonical) normative texts.

Etymology

Birch bark MS from Kashmir of the Rupavatra Wellcome L0032691

The Sanskrit word ''Sūtra'' (

Sanskrit Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominalization, nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cul ...

: सूत्र,

Pali Pali () is a Middle Indo-Aryan liturgical language native to the Indian subcontinent. It is widely studied because it is the language of the Buddhist '' Pāli Canon'' or '' Tipiṭaka'' as well as the sacred language of '' Theravāda'' Bud ...

: ''sutta'',

Ardha Magadhi Ardhamagadhi Prakrit was a Middle Indo-Aryan language and a Dramatic Prakrit thought to have been spoken in modern-day Bihar and Uttar Pradesh and used in some early Buddhist and Jain drama. It was likely a Central Indo-Aryan language, related to ...

: ''sūya'') means "string, thread".M Winternitz (2010 Reprint), A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 249 The root of the word is ''siv'', "that which sews and holds things together". The word is related to ''sūci'' (Sanskrit: सूचि) meaning "needle, list", and ''sūnā'' (Sanskrit: सूना) meaning "woven". In the context of literature, ''sūtra'' means a distilled collection of syllables and words, any form or manual of "aphorism, rule, direction" hanging together like threads with which the teachings of ritual, philosophy, grammar, or any field of knowledge can be woven. A ''sūtra'' is any short rule, states Moriz Winternitz, in Indian literature; it is "a theorem condensed in few words". A collection of ''sūtras'' becomes a text, and this is also called ''sūtra'' (often capitalized in Western literature). A ''sūtra'' is different from other components such as '' Shlokas'', ''Anuvyakhayas'' and ''Vyakhyas'' found in ancient Indian literature. A ''sūtra'' is a condensed rule which succinctly states the message, while a '' Shloka'' is a verse that conveys the complete message and is structured to certain rules of musical meter, an ''Anuvyakhaya'' is an explanation of the reviewed text, while a ''Vyakhya'' is a comment by the reviewer.Max Muller
History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature
Oxford University Press, page 110–111

History

Sutras first appear in the Brahmana and Aranyaka layer of Vedic literature.M Winternitz (2010 Reprint), A History of Indian Literature, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 251–253 They grow in number in the Vedangas, such as the Shrauta Sutras and Kalpa Sutras. These were designed so that they can be easily communicated from a teacher to student, memorized by the recipient for discussion or self-study or as reference. A sutra by itself is condensed shorthand, and the threads of syllable are difficult to decipher or understand without associated scholarly Bhasya or deciphering commentary that fills in the " weft". The oldest manuscripts that have survived into the modern era that contain extensive sutras are part of the

, dated from the late 2nd millennium BCE through to the mid 1st millennium BCE. The Aitareya Aranyaka, for example, states Winternitz, is primarily a collection of ''sutras''. Their use and ancient roots are attested by sutras being mentioned in larger genre of ancient non-Vedic Hindu literature called ''Gatha'', ''Narashansi'', ''Itihasa'', and ''Akhyana'' (songs, legends, epics, and stories). Max Muller
History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature
Oxford University Press, pages 40–45, 71–77 In the history of Indian literature, large compilations of sutras, in diverse fields of knowledge, have been traced to the period from 600 BCE to 200 BCE (mostly after Buddha and Mahavira), and this has been called the "sutras period". This period followed the more ancient ''Chhandas period'', ''Mantra period'' and ''Brahmana period''.

Hinduism

Some of the earliest surviving specimens of ''sutras'' of Hinduism are found in the ''Anupada Sutras'' and ''Nidana Sutras''. The former distills the epistemic debate whether Sruti or Smriti or neither must be considered the more reliable source of knowledge, while the latter distills the rules of musical meters for Samaveda chants and songs. A larger collection of ancient sutra literature in Hinduism corresponds to the six Vedangas, or six limbs of the

. These are six subjects that said in the

to be necessary for complete mastery of the Vedas. The six subjects with their own ''sutras'' were "pronunciation ( Shiksha), meter ( Chandas), grammar ( Vyakarana), explanation of words ( Nirukta), time keeping through astronomy ( Jyotisha), and ceremonial rituals (Kalpa). The first two, states Max Muller, were considered in the Vedic era to be necessary for reading the Veda, the second two for understanding it, and the last two for deploying the Vedic knowledge at yajnas (fire rituals).Max Muller
History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature
Oxford University Press, pages 108–113 The ''sutras'' corresponding to these are embedded inside the Brahmana and Aranyaka layers of the Vedas. Taittiriya Aranyaka, for example in Book 7, embeds sutras for accurate pronunciation after the terse phrases "On Letters", "On Accents", "On Quantity", "On Delivery", and "On Euphonic Laws".Max Muller
History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature
Oxford University Press, pages 113–115 The fourth and often the last layer of philosophical, speculative text in the Vedas, the Upanishads, too have embedded sutras such as those found in the Taittiriya Upanishad. The compendium of ancient Vedic sutra literature that has survived, in full or fragments, includes the Kalpa Sutras,

Smarta Sutras Kalpa ( sa, कल्प) means "proper, fit" and is one of the six disciplines of the Vedānga, or ancillary science connected with the Vedas – the scriptures of Hinduism. This field of study is focused on the procedures and ceremonies associ ...

, Srauta Sutras,

Dharma Sutras Kalpa ( sa, कल्प) means "proper, fit" and is one of the six disciplines of the Vedānga, or ancillary science connected with the Vedas – the scriptures of Hinduism. This field of study is focused on the procedures and ceremonies associ ...

Grhya Sutras Kalpa ( sa, कल्प) means "proper, fit" and is one of the six disciplines of the Vedānga, or ancillary science connected with the Vedas – the scriptures of Hinduism. This field of study is focused on the procedures and ceremonies asso ...

, and Sulba Sutras. Other fields for which ancient sutras are known include etymology, phonetics, and grammar.

Post-vedic sutras

Some examples of sutra texts in various schools of

include *

Brahma Sutras The ''Brahma Sūtras'' ( sa, ब्रह्मसूत्राणि) is a Sanskrit text, attributed to the sage bādarāyaṇa or sage Vyāsa, estimated to have been completed in its surviving form in approx. 400–450 CE,, Quote: "...we c ...

(or Vedanta Sutra) – a Sanskrit text, composed by Badarayana, likely sometime between 200 BCE to 200 CE.NV Isaeva (1992), Shankara and Indian Philosophy, State University of New York Press, , page 35 with footnote 30 The text contains 555 ''sutras'' in four chapters that summarize the philosophical and spiritual ideas in the Upanishads.James Lochtefeld, Brahman, The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing, , page 124 It is one of the foundational texts of the Vedānta school of

. * Yoga Sutras – contains 196 sutras on Yoga including the eight limbs and meditation. The ''Yoga Sutras'' were compiled around 400 CE by Patanjali, taking materials about yoga from older traditions. The text has been highly influential on Indian culture and spiritual traditions, and it is among the most translated ancient Indian text in the medieval era, having been translated into about forty Indian languages. * Samkhya Sutra – is a collection of major

texts of the Samkhya school of Hindu philosophy, including the sutras on

dualism Dualism most commonly refers to: * Mind–body dualism, a philosophical view which holds that mental phenomena are, at least in certain respects, not physical phenomena, or that the mind and the body are distinct and separable from one another ** ...

of Kapila. It consists of six books with 526 sutras. * Vaisheshika Sutra – the foundational text of the Vaisheshika school of Hinduism, dated to between the 4th century BCE and 1st century BCE, authored by Kanada. With 370 sutras, it aphoristically teaches non-theistic naturalism, epistemology, and its metaphysics. The first two sutras of the text expand as, "Now an explanation of

Dharma Dharma (; sa, धर्म, dharma, ; pi, dhamma, italic=yes) is a key concept with multiple meanings in Indian religions, such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism and others. Although there is no direct single-word translation for ...

; The means to prosperity and salvation is Dharma."Klaus K. Klostermaier (2010), A Survey of Hinduism, Third Edition, State University of New York Press, , pages 334–335 *

Nyaya Sutras (Sanskrit: न्याय, ''nyā-yá''), literally meaning "justice", "rules", "method" or "judgment",Nyaya school of Hindu philosophy composed by Akṣapada Gautama, sometime between the 6th century BCE and 2nd century CE.Jeaneane Fowler (2002), Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism, Sussex Academic Press, , page 129 It is notable for focusing on knowledge and logic, and making no mention of Vedic rituals. The text includes 528 aphoristic sutras, about rules of reason, logic, epistemology, and metaphysics. These sutras are divided into five books, with two chapters in each book. The first book is structured as a general introduction and table of contents of sixteen categories of knowledge. Book two is about '' pramana'' (epistemology), book three is about ''prameya'' or the objects of knowledge, and the text discusses the nature of knowledge in remaining books. * Mimamsa Sutras – the foundational text of the Mimamsa school of Hinduism, authored by Jaimini. It emphasizes the early part of the Vedas, i.e., rituals and religious works, as means to salvation.Jeaneane Fowler (2002), Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism, Sussex Academic Press, , pages 67–86 The school emphasized precision in the selection of words, construction of sentences, developed rules for hermeneutics of language and any text, adopted and then refined principles of logic from the Nyaya school, and developed extensive rules for epistemology. An atheistic school that supported external Vedic sacrifices and rituals, its Mimamsa Sutra contains twelve chapters with nearly 2700 ''sutras''. * Dharma-sutras – of Āpastamba, Gautama, Baudhāyana, and Vāsiṣṭha * Artha-sutras – the Niti Sutras of Chanakya and Somadeva are treatises on governance, law, economics, and politics. Versions of Chanakya Niti Sutras have been found in Sri Lanka and Myanmar. The more comprehensive work of Chanakya, the Arthashastra is itself composed in many parts, in ''sutra'' style, with the first Sutra of the ancient book acknowledging that it is a compilation of Artha-knowledge from previous scholars. * Kama Sutra – an ancient Indian Sanskrit text on sexual and emotional fulfillment in life * Moksha-sutras * Shiva Sutras – fourteen verses that organize the phonemes of Sanskrit *

Narada Bhakti Sutra The ''Narada Bhakti Sutra'' ( IAST: ) is a well known sutra venerated within the traditions of Hinduism, reportedly spoken by the famous sage, Narada. The text details the process of devotion ( Bhakti), or Bhakti yoga and is thus of particular ...

– a venerated Hindu sutra, reportedly spoken by the famous sage Narada

Buddhism

In Buddhism, a ''sutta'' or ''sutra'' is a part of the canonical literature. These early Buddhist sutras, unlike Hindu texts, are not aphoristic. On the contrary, they are most often quite lengthy. The Buddhist term ''sutta'' or ''sutra'' probably has roots in Sanskrit ''sūkta'' (''su'' + ''ukta''), "well spoken" from the belief that "all that was spoken by the Lord Buddha was well-spoken".K. R. Norman (1997), ''A philological approach to Buddhism: the Bukkyo Dendo Kyokai Lectures 1994''. (Buddhist Forum, Vol. v.)London: School of Oriental and African Studies,p. 104 They share the character of sermons of "well spoken" wisdom with the Jain sutras. In Chinese, these are known as 經 (

pinyin Hanyu Pinyin (), often shortened to just pinyin, is the official romanization system for Standard Mandarin Chinese in China, and to some extent, in Singapore and Malaysia. It is often used to teach Mandarin, normally written in Chinese fo ...

: ''jīng''). These teachings are assembled in part of the Tripiṭaka which is called the '' Sutta Pitaka''. There are many important or influential

Mahayana ''Mahāyāna'' (; "Great Vehicle") is a term for a broad group of Buddhist traditions, texts, philosophies, and practices. Mahāyāna Buddhism developed in India (c. 1st century BCE onwards) and is considered one of the three main existing bra ...

texts, such as the '' Platform Sutra'' and the ''

Lotus Sutra The ''Lotus Sūtra'' ( zh, 妙法蓮華經; sa, सद्धर्मपुण्डरीकसूत्रम्, translit=Saddharma Puṇḍarīka Sūtram, lit=Sūtra on the White Lotus of the True Dharma, italic=) is one of the most influ ...

'', that are called sutras despite being attributed to much later authors. In Theravada Buddhism suttas comprise the second "basket" (pitaka) of the

Pāli Canon The Pāli Canon is the standard collection of scriptures in the Theravada Buddhist tradition, as preserved in the Pāli language. It is the most complete extant early Buddhist canon. It derives mainly from the Tamrashatiya school. During ...

Rewata Dhamma Sayadaw U Rewata Dhamma ( pi, Revatadhamma; 4 December 1929, Thamangone – 26 May 2004, Birmingham) was a prominent Theravada Buddhist monk and noted Abhidhamma scholar from Myanmar (Burma). After pursuing an academic career in India for most of ...

and Bhikkhu Bodhi describe the Sutta pitaka as

Jainism

In the Jain tradition, sutras are an important genre of "fixed text", which used to be memorized. The Kalpa Sūtra is, for example, a Jain text that includes monastic rules, as well as biographies of the Jain Tirthankaras. Many sutras discuss all aspects of ascetic and lay life in Jainism. Various ancient sutras particularly from the early 1st millennium CE, for example, recommend devotional bhakti as an essential Jain practice. The surviving scriptures of Jaina tradition, such as the Acaranga Sutra ( Agamas), exist in sutra format, as is the Tattvartha Sutra, a Sanskrit text accepted by all four Jainism sects as the most authoritative philosophical text that completely summarizes the foundations of Jainism.

Notes and references

External links

SuttaCentral

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translations in multiple languages of suttas from the Pali Tipitaka and other collections.
Buddhist Scriptures in Multiple Languages
Sacred-texts.com
A Modern sutraIda B. Wells Memorial Sutra Library
(Pali Suttas)
Chinese and English Buddhist SutrasPolity Sutra
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