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The Rupununi is a region in the south-west of Guyana, bordering the Brazilian Amazon. The Rupununi river, also known by the local indigenous peoples as ''Raponani'', flows through the Rupununi region. The name Rupununi originates from the word ''rapon'' in the Makushi language, in which it means the black-bellied whistling duck found along the river.


Geography

The Rupununi River is one of the main tributaries of the
Essequibo River The Essequibo River (; originally called by Alonso de Ojeda; ) is the largest river in Guyana, and the largest river between the Orinoco and Amazon River, Amazon. Rising in the Acarai Mountains near the Brazil–Guyana border, the Essequibo flows ...
and is located in southern
Guyana Guyana, officially the Co-operative Republic of Guyana, is a country on the northern coast of South America, part of the historic British West Indies. entry "Guyana" Georgetown, Guyana, Georgetown is the capital of Guyana and is also the co ...
. The river originates in the Kanuku Mountains, which are located in the Upper Takutu-Essequibo region. The Rupununi River flows near the Guyana-Brazil border, and eventually leads into the Essequibo River. Throughout the flood season, the river shares a watershed with the Amazon. During the rainy season it is connected to the Takutu River by the flooded Pirara Creek, draining the vast swamps of the Parima or Amaku Lake. The region surrounding the Rupununi river is composed of mainly savannah, wetlands, forest, and low mountain ranges. The area of Region 9 is 57,750 square kilometers and has over 80 communities. Most people live within the Rupununi Savannah area, while the jungle covered areas are only populated near major rivers.


Geology

The geology of this area is divided into four main zones. Furthest south are areas of Rhyacian meta-sediments, meta-volcanics (Kwitaro Group) and associated granites, all intruded by Orosirian rocks of the Southern Guyana Granite Complex. The Kanuku Mountains consist of high grade gneisses in a NE-SW belt. The Takutu Graben is a NE-SW fault bounded basin initially filled by basaltic lava, then Mesozoic sediments, including the Takutu Formation. To the north of the Takutu Graben almost flat lying
Statherian The Statherian Period (; , meaning "stable, firm") is the final geologic period in the Paleoproterozoic Era and lasted from Mya to Mya (million years ago). Instead of being based on stratigraphy, these dates are defined chronometrically. Th ...
sandstones and conglomerates of the Roraima Group sediments overly Iwokrama Formation felsic volcanics and associated Orosirian granites. Relict
Hadean The Hadean ( ) is the first and oldest of the four geologic eons of Earth's history, starting with the planet's formation about 4.6  billion years ago (estimated 4567.30 ± 0.16 million years ago set by the age of the oldest solid material ...
zircons (xenocrysts) in the Iwokrama Formation suggest that older crust must occur at depth.


Animal life

The areas both in and surrounding the Rupununi river are home to a great diversity of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems that harbor many species extirpated from other areas of South America. The Rupununi's freshwater eco-regions are areas of exceptional species richness, comparable to that of the Amazonia. Flora and fauna flourish in the Rupununi river because of the Rupununi's isolation from human activity. During an expedition, the South Rupununi Biodiversity Assessment Team (BAT), described the Rupununi river as being "very diverse". "The Northern Rupununi has more than fourteen hundred species of vertebrates, more than twenty-eight hundred species of plants, and countless species of invertebrates" (Rupununi, ''Rediscovering a Lost World'').


Birds

The largely undisturbed forest along the Rupununi river, is a haven for birdlife. A biodiversity study conducted by BAT (South Rupununi Biodiversity Assessment Team), discovered a total of 306 bird species living along the river. Another avian-survey of the North Rupununi river, conducted by David C. Morimoto, Gajendra Nauth Narine, Michael D. Schindlinger and Asaph Wilson (DCM, MDS), showed that "4243 individuals, 292 species, and 58 families"David C. Morimoto, Gajendra Nauth (Andy) Narine, Michael D.schindlinger & Asaph Wilson. "A Baseline Avian Survey of the North Rupununi River, Region 9, Guyana." ''A Baseline Avian Survey of the North Rupununi River, Region 9, Guyana'' (n.d.): n. pag. Web. 19 Feb. 2016. http://www.ao.com.br/download/AO183_33.pdf . of birds inhabited the Northern Rupununi river. Rare bird species that were found in the survey were the Crested Doradito and the Sun Parakeet. The Harpy Eagle also inhabits the Rupununi and is the largest aerial predator in South America. The critically endangered Red Siskin is one of the many species of bird that was rediscovered in the Rupununi river region. A 253,800 ha site in the south central Rupununi catchment has been designated an
Important Bird Area An Important Bird and Biodiversity Area (IBA) is an area identified using an internationally agreed set of criteria as being globally important for the conservation of bird populations. IBA was developed and sites are identified by BirdLife Int ...
(IBA) by
BirdLife International BirdLife International is a global partnership of non-governmental organizations that strives to conserve birds and their habitats. BirdLife International's priorities include preventing extinction of bird species, identifying and safeguarding i ...
because it supports a population of red siskins. Notable species include: *
Harpy Eagle The harpy eagle (''Harpia harpyja'') is a large Neotropical realm, neotropical species of eagle. It is also called the American harpy eagle to distinguish it from the Papuan eagle, which is sometimes known as the New Guinea Harpy Eagle, New Guin ...
(''Harpia harpyja'') * Red Siskin (''Carduelis cucullata'') * Rufescent Tiger-Heron (''Tigrisoma lineatum'') *
Wattled Jacana The wattled jacana (''Jacana jacana'') is a wader in the family Jacanidae found throughout much of South America east of the Andes Mountains, Andes, as well as western Panama and Trinidad. It is the only species in the Jacanidae family with suc ...
(''Jacana jacana'')


Reptiles

Reptiles thrive in the Rupununi river, preying off of small fish and crustaceans. In another study conducted by the BAT (South Rupununi Biodiversity Assessment Team), it was discovered that 34 different species of reptiles were living along the river. The black caiman is the largest predator in the Rupununi, measuring up to 5 m in length, however it has become endangered due to hunting for their belly skins throughout the 1930s - 1970s. Notable species include: *
Black caiman The black caiman (''Melanosuchus niger'') is a crocodilian reptile endemic to South America. With a maximum length of around and a mass of over , it is the largest living species of the family Alligatoridae, and the third-largest crocodilian in ...
(''Melanosuchus niger'') * Emerald tree boa (''Corallus caninus'') * Green anaconda (''Eunectes murinus'') * Red-footed tortoise (''Chelonoidis carbonaria'') * Neotropical rattlesnake (''Crotalus durissus'') * Giant River Turtle (''Podocnemis expansa'')


Large mammals

The Rupununi is home to relatively healthy populations of the South America's giant mammals, including the largest feline terrestrial predators, the jaguar and the puma. Both the
jaguar The jaguar (''Panthera onca'') is a large felidae, cat species and the only extant taxon, living member of the genus ''Panthera'' that is native to the Americas. With a body length of up to and a weight of up to , it is the biggest cat spe ...
and the puma are extremely elusive cats, adept at hunting anything from turtles to domesticated dogs. However they are seen as threats to livestock, and are hunted, which has ultimately resulted in a decline in their population numbers. Another large mammal that lives in the Rupununi is the
giant otter The giant otter or giant river otter (''Pteronura brasiliensis'') is a South American carnivorous mammal. It is the longest member of the weasel family, Mustelidae, a globally successful group of predators, reaching up to . Atypical of mustel ...
, which is the largest otter in the world. Various species of primates and smaller terrestrial herbivores and insectivores such as the
tapir Tapirs ( ) are large, herbivorous mammals belonging to the family Tapiridae. They are similar in shape to a Suidae, pig, with a short, prehensile nose trunk (proboscis). Tapirs inhabit jungle and forest regions of South America, South and Centr ...
s, also live and forage along the Rupununi river. Notable species include: * Jaguar (''Panthera onca'') * Puma (''Puma concolor'') * Giant Otter (''Pteronura brasiliensis'') *
Howler monkey Howler monkeys (genus ''Alouatta'', monotypic in subfamily Alouattinae) are the most widespread primate genus in the Neotropical realm, Neotropics and are among the largest of the New World monkey, platyrrhines along with the muriquis (''Brachyte ...
s (''Alouatta'') *
Capybara The capybara or greater capybara (''Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris'') is the largest living rodent, native to South America. It is a member of the genus '' Hydrochoerus''. The only other extant member is the lesser capybara (''Hydrochoerus isthmi ...
(''Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris'') *
Giant Anteater The giant anteater (''Myrmecophaga tridactyla'') is an Insectivore, insectivorous mammal native to Central America, Central and South America. It is the largest of the four living species of anteaters, which are classified with sloths in the or ...
(''Myrmecophaga tridactyla'')


Aquatic life

The Rupununi has one of the most diverse aquatic ecosystems on the planet. A total of 410 species of fish inhabit the Rupununi, surpassing that of
French Guiana French Guiana, or Guyane in French, is an Overseas departments and regions of France, overseas department and region of France located on the northern coast of South America in the Guianas and the West Indies. Bordered by Suriname to the west ...
(298 species) and
Suriname Suriname, officially the Republic of Suriname, is a country in northern South America, also considered as part of the Caribbean and the West Indies. It is a developing country with a Human Development Index, high level of human development; i ...
(309 species). However, since there is a lack of freshwater fish taxonomists and researchers studying the area, it is estimated that there are at least 600 different species of fish in the Rupununi. Giants also lurk in the waters of the Rupununi. The
arapaima The arapaima, pirarucu, or paiche is any large species of bonytongue in the genus ''Arapaima'' native to the Amazon Basin, Amazon and Essequibo River, Essequibo basins of South America. ''Arapaima'' is the type genus of the subfamily Arapaiminae ...
(Arapaima) and the '' Lau-Lau'' ''(B. filamentosum)'' each measuring approximately 2, and in some exceptional cases 4 meters in length, have been found in the most remote corners of the Rupununi river. However, these river monsters are seldom seen and are rarely ever caught.
Overexploitation Overexploitation, also called overharvesting or ecological overshoot, refers to harvesting a renewable resource to the point of diminishing returns. Continued overexploitation can lead to the destruction of the resource, as it will be unable to ...
and overfishing have forced these two species of fish to migrate deeper into unexplored territory in the Rupununi. Notable species include: *
Arapaima The arapaima, pirarucu, or paiche is any large species of bonytongue in the genus ''Arapaima'' native to the Amazon Basin, Amazon and Essequibo River, Essequibo basins of South America. ''Arapaima'' is the type genus of the subfamily Arapaiminae ...
(''Arapaima'') * '' Lau-Lau'' (''B. filamentosum'') *
Red-Bellied Piranha The red-bellied piranha, also known as the red piranha (''Pygocentrus nattereri''), is a Type (biology), type of piranha native to South America, found in the Amazon basin, Amazon, Paraguay River, Paraguay, Paraná River, Paraná and Essequibo Ri ...
(''Pygocentrus nattereri'') * '' Lukanani'', Butterfly Peacock Bass * Redtail Catfish (''Phractocephalus hemioliopterus'')


History


Precolonial civilization

Indigenous peoples have been part of the Rupununi landscape for millennia. Anthropologists have discovered Paleo-Indian petroglyphs, dated to be several thousands of years old along the course of the Rupununi river. Before the colonization of Guyana and the Rupununi region, the Makushi Amerindians, Wai-Wai and the Wapishana all inhabited the area. The Makushi migrated from what is now known as modern Brazil and Venezuela, to the northern areas of the Rupununi river, over four-hundred years ago. The Makushi Amerindians continue to live in the Rio Branco savannahs and northern Rupununi, surviving off of the abundance of fish, wildlife and forest resources of the area.


Age of exploration

Sir Walter Raleigh Sir Walter Raleigh (; – 29 October 1618) was an English statesman, soldier, writer and explorer. One of the most notable figures of the Elizabethan era, he played a leading part in English colonisation of North America, suppressed rebellio ...
claimed that the Rupununi was where the famed ''
El Dorado El Dorado () is a mythical city of gold supposedly located somewhere in South America. The king of this city was said to be so rich that he would cover himself from head to foot in gold dust – either daily or on certain ceremonial occasions � ...
'' was situated, however he never explored the river. Other early explorers such as
Charles Waterton Charles Waterton (3 June 1782 – 27 May 1865) was an English naturalist, plantation overseer and explorer best known for his pioneering work regarding conservation. Family and religion Waterton was of a Roman Catholic landed gentry family de ...
and
Robert Schomburgk Sir Robert Hermann Schomburgk (5 June 1804 – 11 March 1865) was a Holy Roman Empire-born explorer for Great Britain who carried out geographical, ethnological and botanical studies in South America and the West Indies, and also fulfilled diplo ...
attempted to locate ''El Dorado'', and successfully managed to visit the supposed location of the South-American myth, which is in fact part of the northern Rupununi. However they never found ''El Dorado''.


20th century development

Guyana is a developing country that lacks sustainable economic, environmental and investment growth. Exploiting the Rupununi's resources through corporate agriculture, mining and petroleum extraction are potential pathways that Guyana could undertake. Extant roads such as the one connecting the Rupununi and the state of
Roraima Roraima ( ) is one of the 26 states of Brazil. Located in the country's North Region, it is the northernmost and most geographically and logistically isolated state in Brazil. It is bordered by the state of Pará to the southeast, Amazonas t ...
are being upgraded to travel all the way to Georgetown. A bridge has also been constructed on the Guyana-Brazil border, that links Lethem (Guyana) to Bonfim (Brazil). This infrastructure will facilitate the transportation of goods throughout the area, however it poses a threat to the Rupununi's fragile eco-system. In order to formally protect the Rupununi's eco-system, NGO's and the Guyanese government have partnered up to attempt to enforce legislation to ban any prejudicial human activity towards the environment and wildlife in the Rupununi.


Ecotourism and adventure tourism

Ecotourism in the Rupununi is an important part of Guyana's economy, especially for the local Amerindian people. There are many ranches and lodges such as the Karanambu Ranch, a protected area for giant otters and other endangered species in the Rupununi, started by Tiny McTurk (1927), that generate revenue from tourists visiting the Rupununi. Near to Karanambu is the ecolodge Caiman House, a social enterprise that drives revenue to a public library, raising the pass rate into secondary school from near-zero in 2005 to 86% in 2019.
Conservation International Conservation International (CI) is an American nonprofit environmental organization headquartered in Crystal City, Virginia, in Arlington County, Virginia. CI's work focuses on science, policy and partnership with businesses, governments and co ...
host a website on the Rupununi that includes details of ecotourism accommodation. Some tourists travel overland from Georgetown to Lethem via the Rupununi and on to Brazil, but the travel is very slow in the rainy season when the dirt roads degrade, and may be impossible. Rock View Lodge and The Pakaraima Mountain Inn are both near Annai 3–5 hours from Lethem. The Rupununi / Lethem Rodeo is a tourist attraction at Easter (during the dry season).


See also

* List of rivers of Guyana * Rappu Falls * Rupununi Uprising


References

*Vegamián, Félix María de (Father, Order of Friars Minor Capuchin). ''El Esequivo, frontera de Venezuela. Documentos históricos y experiencias personales''. Madrid: Talleres Tipográficos Raycar S. A., 1968.


External links

*
Aerial view of the mouth of the Esequibo River.
{{Coord, 7, 02 Regions of South America Geographical regions Ecoregions Rivers of Guyana Important Bird Areas of Guyana